JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
APRIL 2005 VOL. 102(1)
JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 023.
Executive Editor
Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai
Copy and Production Editor
Gayatri W. Ugra, Ph. D.
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai
Editorial Board
M R. Almeida, D. Litt.
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai
Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.
National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,
Hebbal, Bangalore
M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.
Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre
for Advanced Scientific Research,
Bangalore
Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D.
The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati
Indraneil Das, D. Phil.
Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,
Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia
Raghavendra Gadagkar, Ph. D.
Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun
K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.
Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,
Bangalore, Karnataka
T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.
Professor, Department of Zoology,
University of Calicut, Kerala
Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.
Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,
Hyderabad
G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun
K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.
Zoological Survey of India, Chennai
J.S. Singh, Ph. D.
Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
S. Subramanya, Ph. D.
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,
Hebbal, Bangalore
R. Sukumar, Ph. D.
Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.
Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,
Tamil Nadu
Senior Consultant Editor
Mr. J.C. Daniel
Consultant Editors
Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.
Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore.
Nigel Collar, Ph. D.
BirdLife International, UK
Rhys Green, Ph. D.
Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK
Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun
T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.
World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan
Editorial Assistant: Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.
Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu
© Bombay Natural History Society 2005
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VOLUME 102 (1): APRIL 2005
contents l FEB 2 2008 )
EDITORIAL 1
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE’S LANGUR TRACHYPITHECUSTniTREI
IN TRIPURA, INDIA: RESPONSES TO FOOD ABUNDANCE AND HUMAN DISTURBANCE
A. K. Gupta 3
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
— 41 . FAMILY: EMBERIZIDAE: BUNTINGS
Saraswathy Unnithan 10
DORSAL SPOT PATTERN AS UNIQUE MARKERS TO ESTIMATE THE POPULATION SIZE OF RAN A CURTIPES
Savitha N. Krishna, Sharath B. Krishna and K.K. Vijayalaxmi 16
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA
Asham Borang, Bharat B. Bhatt, S. Bordoloi Chaudhury, A. Borkotoki and P.T. Bhutia 19
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS AT THREE PROTECTED AREAS OF KERALA
M.I. Andrews, Sanil George and Jaimon Joseph 27
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL PAPILIO LIOMEDON MOORE
C. Susanth 33
PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS: AN EVALUATION OF THEIR EFFICIENCY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO FIELD CRICKETS (GRYLLIDAE: ORTHOPTERA)
B. U. Divya, Sapna Metrani and Rohini Balakrishnan 38
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ON SNAKES COLLECTED
BY SUNDARVAN NATURE DISCOVERY CENTRE, AHMEDABAD
Abdul Jamil Urfi 44
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK, ASSAM
A. Wakid and S.P. Biswas 50
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT, MANIPUR
Laishram Kosygin and Waikhom Vishwanath 56
VALIDITY AND REDESCRIPTION OF GLYPTOTHORAX MAN1PURENSIS MENON AND RECORD OF G. SINENSE
(REGAN) FROM INDIA
Laishram Kosygin and Waikhom Vishwanath 61
DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN KUTTANAD RICE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM, KERALA
A. V. Sudhikumar and P.A. Sebastian 66
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
THREE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CLADARCTIA KODA (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEP1DOPTERA) FROM
INDIA
Amritpal S. Kaleka 69
FISHES OF THE GENUS NEMA CHEIL US (BLEEKER 1863) IN KERALA WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW
SPECIES, NEMA CHEIL US PERIYARENS/S
B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan 75
A NEW NEMACHEILINE FISH OF THE GENUS SCHISTURA MCCLELLAND (CYPRINIFORMES: BALITORIDAE)
FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
W. Vishwanath and K. Nebeshwar Sharma 79
A NEW SPECIES OF PUNT/US (CYPRINIDAE, CYPRININAE) FROM KERALA, INDIA
K.S. Jameela Beevi and A. Ramachandran 83
ANEW FISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS GARRA HAMILTON-BUCHANAN (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE)
FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
W. Vishwanath and K, Shanta Devi 86
REVIEWS
1. THE WAY OF THE TIGER: NATURAL HISTORY AND CONSERVATION OF THE ENDANGERED BIG
CAT
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 89
2. THE RETURN OF THE UNICORNS: THE NATURAL HISTORY AND CONSERVATION OF THE GREATER
ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 89
3. LIFE AT THE ZOO: BEHIND THE SCENES WITH THE ANIMAL DOCTORS
Reviewed by Sally Walker 90
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Did Tigers Panthera tigris tigris pass through the
Indus Delta?
By G. Neumann-Denzau 93
2. An instance of adoption in the Indian Flying Fox
P ter opus giganteus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)
By Joseph Mathai and Mathew M. Oommen 95
3. New site record for Small Travancore Flying Squirrel
Petinomys fuscocapillus fuscocapillus from Karnataka
By H.N. Kumara and Mewa Singh 97
4. A case of total albinism in the Five-striped Palm
Squirrel Funambulus pennanti Wroughton in
Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra State
By Anil Mahabal, R.M. Sharma and
M.S. Pradhan 98
BIRDS
5. Occurrence of Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger
in Ladakh
By Harkirat Singh Sanghaand
Rishad Naoroji 99
6. An instance of mortality and notes on behaviour of
Black-necked Storks Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
By K.S. Gopi Sundar 99
7. Red-crested Pochard — Rhodonessa rufina (Pallas)
in Kachchh
By S.N. Varu, N.N. Bapat, T.B. Chhaya
and Ash win Pomal 102
8. Predation by Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus on
chick of Sarus Crane Gnis antigone antigone in Kota,
Rajasthan
By Jatinder Kaur and B.C. Choudhury 102
9. The Lesser Kestrel Falco nciumanni and Amur
Falcon Falco amurensis in the Garo Hills,
Meghalaya, India
By Rishad Naoroji, Harkirat Singh Sangha and
Maan Barua 103
10. The diet of the Nicobar Megapode Megapodius
nicobariensis , in Great Nicobar Island
By K. Sivakumar and R. Sankaran 105
1 1 . Grit use in the Sarus Crane Grus antigone
By K.S. Gopi Sundar and B.C. Choudhury 106
12. Observations of mate change and other aspects of
pair-bond in the Sarus Crane Grus antigone
By K.S. Gopi Sundar 109
13. Distribution of Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata
in the Sundarbans Reserved Forest of Bangladesh
By Mohammad Osman Gani 112
14. Territorial fighting behaviour of Great Indian Bustard
Ardeotis nigriceps
By Justus Joshua, V. Gokula and
S.F. Wesley Sunderraj 114
15. Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis feeding on
winged termites
By N. Sivakumaran and Asad R. Rahmani 115
1 6. Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus Pennant in the
Nilgiris upper plateau, Tamil Nadu
By Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri and Asad R. Rahmani 1 1 6
17. Fish in the diet of the Black Drongo Dicrurus
macrocercus Vieillot
By B. Senthilmurugan 116
18. Great-tufted Myna Acridotheres grandis — an
addition to the birds of Meghalaya
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 117
1 9. An observation of mate selection in the House Crow
Corvus splendens: an apparent instance of modified
lekking in a corvid
By David A. Krauss, Nicole Scivoletti and
Harrington Wells 117
20. Nesting behaviour and unusual feeding pattern in
Common Woodshrike ( Tephrodornis pondicerianus)
By Hiren Soni, J. Pankaj and J. Joshua 120
21. Albino Bulbul at Keibul Lamjao National Park,
Manipur, India
By Dipankar Ghose and Samir Khan 120
22. Use of Lichens in bird nest construction:
observations from Boiampatti Range, Tamil Nadu,
Western Ghats
By GN. Hariharan and P. Balaji 121
AMPHIBIANS
23. First record of Polypedates leucomystax
(Gravenhorst 1829) (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from
Southern West Bengal
By Kaushik Deuti and Ananda Banerjee 123
FISHES
24. A note on Barilius bakeri (Cyprinidae: Danioninae)
from Karnataka with remarks on the status of
Opsarius malabaricus Jerdon
By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra,
M.B. Raghunathan and P.M. Raagam 123
25. Observations on two Catfish species from Bangalore
district, Karnataka
By K. Rema Devi and S. Krishnan 125
INSECTS
26. Redescription of Spalgis epius (Westwood)
(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) with emphasis of male
genitalia
By S. Chakrabarti and D. Gurung 126
27. Additions to the light attracted Butterflies
By R.M. Sharma and Naresh Chaturvedi 129
28. Ficus pumila L. : A new host plant of Common Crow
( Euploea core Cramer, Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)
By N.A. Aravind 129
29. On the taxonomy and appearance of Mixolophia
ochrolauta Warren (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) in
the Kumaon Himalaya
By Peter Smetacek 1 30
30. New record of Aleurocanthus martini David,
Homoptera: Aleyrodidae, from India
By Anil Kumar Dubey and R. Sundararaj 131
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
31. New record of Brown Mussel Perna indica
Kuriakose and Nair 1976, from Karnataka Coast
By V.N. Nayak and R. Durga 131
BOTANY
32. Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell — an
addition to the weed flora of Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
By V.M. Radhakrishnan, R. Sumathi and
J. Jayanthi 132
33. Invasion of Alligator Weed Alternanthera
philoxeroides (Mart,) Griseb. in Andaman Islands
By Sudhakar Reddy and Vatsavaya S. Raju 133
34. Some interesting additions to the flora of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands from North Andaman
By Sudhakar Reddy and C.B.S. Dutt 133
35. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. on Commiphora
wightii (Am.) Bhand.: A new record of parasitic
association
By A. S. Reddy and V. Rama Rao 135
36. First record of Clathrus delicatus Berkeley &
Broome 1873 from Sanjay Gandhi National Park.
Mumbai
By Deepak Apte 135
37. Studies on the seasonal aspects of angiospermic wall
vegetation of Khargone and its suburbs
By S.K. Mahajan 136
Cover Photograph: Phayre’s Langur Trachypithecus phayrei
By A.K. Gupta
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
Editorial
Hotspots and Coldspots
In 1988, the celebrated British ecologist Norman Myers gave the concept of biodiversity' hotspots as a
method to identify most important areas for conservation (Myers 1988). This concept was later expanded and
criteria for identifying hotspots were developed - the region must support at least 1,500 plant species found
nowhere else in the world, and it must have lost at least 70 per cent of its original vegetation. It was suggested that
if we protect the biodiversity hotspots of the world, nearly 30-50% of the world’s biodiversity would be protected
(Myers 1990; Myers et al. 2000). Hotspots are areas with very rich biodiversity such as the tropical rain forests of
Brazil, Indonesia, northeast India and the Western Ghats. There are supposed to be 1 2 mega-diversity countries in
the world, and India is one of them. 30-50% of amphibian, reptile, mammal, bird and plant species occur in 25
hotspots that occupy about 2% of the land surface (except the ice-covered polar regions) (Myer et al. 2000).
Conservationists and funding agencies, looking for easy solutions to the biodiversity crises of the world fell for
the hotspot conservation concept. Who would not? By protecting less than 2% of the land’s surface, if we can
save 30 to 50% of the species, then we should accept the hotspot model of conservation. But what about the
habitats (and the species) that do not qualify the hotspot criteria? What about the 50-70% species that do not
occur in the hotspots? Are they less important? Do they also not play their role in maintaining the life support
system of this world? Do they not have endemic and rare species that need protecting? Are these areas not
important culturally, spiritually, economically and scenically? Shouldn’t we have a taxa or habitat representative
and ecoregion approach for global biodiversity conservation? The whole concept of biodiversity hotspot
conservation approach has been questioned recently (Smith et al. 2001; Kareiva and Marvier 2003; Entwistle
2004).
The high altitude cold deserts of India, China, Central Asia and South America, the wind-swept grasslands
of Mongolia, the hot deserts of Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa and North America, the boreal forest of
Europe, the scrub forest of India - all these may not have high species diversity and would not fall in the hotspot
category, but these ecosystems are also important for conservation initiative and funding. We can call them
biodiversity ‘coldspots’. As desert and grassland species are generally thinly and widely distributed, they need
a landscape approach for conservation. Moreover, millions of people live in these ecosystems and have great
impact on the ecology and distribution of wild animals, thus conservation actions become much more complex. In
the hotspot conservation paradigm, we can set aside human free, relatively small protected areas (PAs) and save
huge numbers of endemic and rare species, but in the coldspots, a different conservation approach is needed.
Here the small PAs (about 500 to 1000 sq. km) would not make much conservation sense as the genetically viable
populations of any target species range in much larger areas (e.g. Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps , Snow
Leopard Uncia uncia. Wolf Canis lupus). Therefore, in deserts, grasslands and marine ecosystems we need
thousands of sq. km of protected areas. Can Man be excluded from such large PAs?
The IUCN Red List of 2004 includes an assessment for 38,047 species. The results are shocking: 15,589
species are threatened with extinction (listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable); 844 species are
Extinct or Extinct in the Wild; 3,700 species are listed as Near Threatened or Conservation Dependent; 3,580 are
Data Deficient; and, 1 4,344 are Least Concern (Baillie et al. 2004). The 1 5,589 species threatened with extinction
constitute only 1% of the world’s described species. Although statistics of how many of these threatened species
are found in the world’s hotspots is not available to me, a quick glance at the bird list shows that for many species,
especially those found in marine, temperate forest, desert and grassland, the hotspot model of conservation
priority setting would not be adequate. BirdLife International’s Important Bird Areas (IBAs) (Grimmett and Jones
1989) and Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) (Stattersfield etal. 1998) approaches are very objective in identifying sites
for conservation. It has been found that many sites important for birds are also important for other biodiversity. In
the IBA/EBA process, the biodiversity hotspots are invariably identified as IBAs/EBAs, but scrubland, grasslands.
mangroves, taiga, boreal forests etc., also found place in the IBA/EBA lists. Most endemic bird species are found
in only one EBA (Norris and Harper 2004) and many EBAs do not fall in the hotspots category (of Myers et al.
2000). Norris and Harper (2004) have shown that out of the 39 ecologically vulnerable EBAs, 22 are not inside any
hotspot region of Myers et al. (2000). They conclude that existing priority-setting exercises for hotspots of
endemism under-represent ecologically vulnerable sites. Therefore, if we concentrate mainly on hotspot approach
of conservation, some of the most threatened species and their habitat would be left out.
Olson et al. (200 1 ) have identified 1 4 major biomes worldwide. In the assessment of the number of threatened
mammals, birds and amphibians occurring in each biome (Baillie et al. 2004), the highest number of threatened
species in all the three taxa were found in Tropical/Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forest, and Tropical/Subtropical
Dry Broadleaf Forest (the biodiversity hotspots). Surprisingly, the third and fourth biome categories having the
highest number of threatened species were Tropical/Subtropical Grassland, Savanna and Shrubland, and Montane
Grassland and Shrubland. Desert and Xeric Shrubland biome was high in the priority for mammals and birds,
almost equal to Tropical/Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest biome (Baillie et al. 2004, p. 69).
The ‘hotspots’ conservation model is certainly very objective, but unfortunately it does not cover all the
biodiversity priority conservation areas. A ‘habitat-taxa representative’ model is more subjective but it covers
most, if not all, ecoregions of the world (Dinerstein et al. 1995; Ricketts et al. 1999; Wikramananyake et al. 2002).
Perhaps we have to blend the two models in the conservation priority-setting exercises. It is time to accept that
‘coldspots’ are as important for biodiversity conservation as the hotspots.
Asad R. Rahmani
REFERENCES
Baillie, J.E M., C. Hilton-Taylor, S.N. Stuart (Eds) (2004): 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: A Global Species
Assessment. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Dinerstein, E„ D.M. Olson, D. Graham, A. Webster, S. Primm, M. Bookbinder & G Ledec ( 1995): A conservation assessment
of the terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA.
Entwistle, A. (2004): Eurasia - a biodiversity coldspot? Oryx 38(3): 239-240.
Grimmett, R.F.A. & T.A. Jones (1989): Important Bird Areas in Europe. Tech. Publ. 9. International Council for Bird
Preservation, Cambridge, U.K.
Kareiva, P. & M. Marvier (2003): Conserving biodiversity coldspots. American Scientists 91: 344-351.
Myers, N. (1988): Threatened biotas: “hotspots” in tropical forests. The Environmentalist 8: 187-208.
Myers, N. (1990): The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spot analysis. The Environmentalist 10: 243-256.
Myers, N„ R.A. Mittermeier, C.G Mittermeier, G.A.B. Fonseca & J. Kent (2000): Biodiversity hotspots for conservation
priority. Nature 403: 280-283.
Norris, K. & N. Harper (2004): Extinction processes in hot spots of avian biodiversity and the targeting of pre-emptive
conservation action. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B: 271: 123-130.
Olson, D.M., E. Dinerstein, E.D. Wikramanayake, N.D. Burgess, G.V.N. Powell, E.C. Underwood, J.A. D’Amico, I. Itoua,
H.E. Strand, J.C. Morrison, C.J. Loucks, T.F. Allnutt, T.H. Ricketts, Y. Kura, J.F. Lamoreux, W.W. Wettengel,
P. Hedao & K.R. Kassem (2001): Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. BioScience, 51:
933-938.
Ricketts, T.H., E. Dinerstein, D.M. Olson, C.J. Loucks, W. Eichbaum, D. DellaSala, K. Kavanagh, P. Hedao, PT. Hurley,
K.M. Carney, R. Abell & S. Walters (1999): Terrestrial ecoregions of North America: A conservation assessment.
Island Press, Washington D. C., USA.
Smith, T.B., S. Kark, C.J. Schneider, R.K. Wayne & C. Moritz (2001): Biodiversity hotspots and beyond: the need for
preserving environmental transitions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16 (8): 43 1 .
Stattersfield, A.J., M.J. Crosby, A.J. Long & D.C. Wege (1998): Endemic Bird Areas of the World. BirdLife International,
Cambridge, U.K.
Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, C.J. Loucks, D.M. Olson, J. Morrison, J. Lamoreux, M. McKnight & P. Hedao (2002):
Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
2
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
3-9
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE’S LANGUR
TRAC HYP ITHECUS PHAYREI IN TRIPURA, INDIA: RESPONSES TO FOOD
ABUNDANCE AND HUMAN DISTURBANCE1
A. K. Gupta2
'Accepted October, 2003
2Wildlife Institute of India, Faculty of Wildlife Sciences, Department of Population Management, Capture & Rehabilitation,
P. O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India. Email akg@wn gov. in
Dietary differences were compared between two groups of Phayre’s Langur ( Trachypithecus phayrei). one each in
Gumti and Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura, northeast India. In Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary (GWLS), out of 19 food
species used by the group, just 5 accounted for more than 75% of the total feeding time, while in Sepahijala Wildlife
Sanctuary (S WLS), 1 6 out of 67 food species accounted for almost the same feeding time. Out of twelve common food
species in both the sanctuaries, some were used more frequently in GWLS than in SWLS, and vice versa , e.g.
Albizzia procera was a highly preferred food species in Gumti than in Sepahijala. Feeding on young foliage was almost
the same for both the groups. In GWLS, the langur ate more seeds (23.2%) and a little unripe fruit (5.3%), while in
SWLS, it ate more unripe fruit (17.6%) and spent equal durations of time feeding on seeds (6.0%) and mature foliage
(5.8%). Differences in food abundance and availability, and variations in the nature and intensity of human disturbance
have been identified as some of the possible reasons for the dietary differences in the two groups. This study highlights
the need for species- and area-specific conservation strategies, based on detailed information on specific ecological needs
of adjacent populations of any given indicator/ flagship wildlife species.
Key words: Phayre’s Langur, Trachypithecus phayrei , Tripura, feeding ecology, human disturbance, learnt cultural
traditions
INTRODUCTION
Dietary differences among neighbouring populations of
the same primate species could be more than simply a measure
of the presence or absence of specific food items from their
home ranges (Chapman and Fedigan 1 990). Richards (1977) noted
that one population of Propithecus verreanxi fed extensively
on one specific food item, whereas another population totally
ignored it, although the abundance of that item was almost
same. Schlichte ( 1 978) observed that differences in the feeding
behaviour may be dependent not only on the density of the
plant species, but also on the composition of the vegetation as
a whole. Dietary differences have also been explained in terms
of: environmental differences and/or primate cultural traditions
(Rummer 1971; McGrew 1983, Richards 1985); human
disturbance (Nishida et al. 1983); role of phytochemistry and
secondary compounds in food selection (Freeland and Janzen
1974; Oates et al. 1 977 ; Waterman and Choo 1981; Mowry et al.
1996); and food profitability in terms of nutrients, energy value
and availability (Chapman and Fedigan 1 990).
In this paper, I examine the dietary differences between
two groups of Phayre’s Langur ( Trachypithecus phayrei), in
relation to variations in food abundance; human disturbance
and cultural traditions.
METHODS
Study animal
Phayre’s Langur Trachypithecus phayrei ( =Presbytis
phayrei), belongs to Family Colobidae. Since the last review
on the taxonomic status of this species by Agrawal (1974),
confusion has persisted as it is referred to by different names:
Presbytis phayrei, P. barbei and Trachypithecus phayrei.
Gupta ( 1 998) reviewed its taxonomic status and recommended
the use of Phayre’s Langur Trachypithecus phayrei phayrei
as the common and scientific names for this species. The species
is reported in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, China, Thailand,
Laos and Vietnam. The western and eastern limits of this species
are Bangladesh (24° 30' N, 90° 1 O' E) and North Vietnam (20° 1 9'
N, 105° 38' E) while its northern and southern limits are China
(25° N, 98° 45' E) and Thailand ( 1 4° 4 1 ' N, 98° 52' E) respectively.
In India, Tripura has the largest population (Gupta 1 994) of this
species, which was also reported from Assam (Choudhury 1 986)
and Mizoram (Mishra et al. unpublished report).
Study sites and Study groups
The study was conducted in Gumti (23° 21'-23° 40' N;
9 1 ° 57' E) and Sepahijala (23° 38'-23° 42' N ; 9 1 ° 1 7'-9 1 ° 22' E)
wildlife sanctuaries separated by about 1 00 km (Fig. 1 ).
Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary: Gumti (389.5 sq. km) receives
annual rainfall of about 150 cm; its minimum and maximum
temperatures are c. 4 °C and 38 °C respectively. Mean altitude
varies between 150-380 m above msl. The study site was a
secondary forest patch (68 ha) of about 1 5 years’ regeneration
growth, due to shifting cultivation {jhum), located at
Mukhchheri, about 16 km from the Sanctuary headquarters at
Jatanbari. Jhum was a major human disturbance. The forest
types are Evergreen and Moist, Mixed Semi-Evergreen and
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE'S LANGUR IN TRIPURA
Fig 1: Map of Tripura, northeast India, showing location of Gumti and Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuaries
Deciduous. Main plant species included large stands of
Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. flos-reginae, Albizzia procera,
A. stipulate r, A. lebbek , Bursera serrata, Gmelina arborea,
Eugenia jambolina , Salmalia malabarica, besides bamboo
( Melocanna bambusoides), thatch ( Imperata cylindrica),
Mikania scandens, Holarrhena antidysentrica, and
Eupatorium sp. The middle and lower canopy was a coppice
of fire-hardy secondary forest species. A total of 1 7 groups of
Phayre’s Langur were present in Gumti, of which five were
within the study area. One of these was selected for an
intensive ecological study. During the study period, this group
(referred to as Group-G) consisted of 18 individuals: 1 adult
male, 5 adult females, 9 sub-adults, 2 infants, and 1 new born.
Other primate species in the study area were: Capped Langur
( Trachypithecus pileatus), Hoolock Gibbon ( Hylobates
hoolock ), Slow Loris ( Nycticebus coucang). Rhesus Macaque
( Macaca mulatto ), Stump-tailed Macaque (M arctoides) and
Pig-tailed Macaque (M. nemestrina).
4
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE'S LANGUR IN TRIPURA
Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary-. The annual rainfall (120
cm) of Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary ( 1 8.5 sq. km) is less than
Gumti WLS, but its minimum and maximum range of
temperatures are similar to Gumti. Mean altitude varies
between 20-40 m above msl. The study area is a Reserved
Forest (69 ha) consisting mainly of Semi-evergreen forest:
Terminalia belerica, T. chebu/a, Gmelina arborea, Albizzia
stipulata, Dillenia pentagyna , Ficus racemosa, F. fistulosa,
F. hispida, Syzygium fruticosum , Artocarpus chaplasha,
Salmalia malabarica , and Schima wallichii among others.
It was noted that Ficus trees were well represented, mainly
because jhum was almost absent in this area.
The study area here differed from Gumti in the presence
of forestry plantation patches. These plantations (about 9
ha) of native and exotic tree species (Tectona grandis, Acacia
auriculiformis, Adenanthera pavonina , Delonix regia , Hevea
brazil iensis , were raised in the early 1980s to restore the forest
which had been degraded due to heavy biotic pressure
(largely for collection of forest products, livestock grazing
and cultivation) from 17 villages located in and around this
area.
The food plant species diversity used by the langurs
here is 41 species/ha (almost twice than at GWLS) although
estimated tree density is marginally less at 250 trees/ha (Gupta
1996).
Sepahijala had 1 7 groups of Phayre’s Langur, of which
four were within the study area. The study group (Group-S)
consisted of 7 individuals (1 adult male, 3 adult females,
1 sub-adult and 2 infants) at the beginning of the study, which
increased to 1 1 individuals (3 adult males, 3 adult females,
1 sub-adult, 2 infants and 2 new born) at the end of the study
period following immigration and new births. Other primate
species in the area were Capped Langur, Rhesus Macaque,
Months
Fig 2: Percent time spent feeding by Group-G and Group-S of
Phayre’s langur ( Trachypithecus phayrei ) in Gumti and Sepahijala
Wildlife Sanctuary
Pig-tailed Macaque and Slow Loris. One group of Golden
Langur ( Trachypithecus geei ) introduced in this Sanctuary
was also present (Gupta and Mukherjee 1994). Hoolock
Gibbon and Stump-tailed Macaque were absent.
Ecological and behavioural observations
Ecological and behavioural data on Group-G were
collected for seven months from November 1989 to June 1990.
Data on Group-S were collected for one complete year from
November 1993 to October 1994, but only 8 months (Nov.-
Jun) data have been used in this paper.
An initial period of about three months was spent
surveying, mapping and habituating the selected study animal
groups before undertaking intensive studies at both sites.
Vegetation Sampling
In Gumti WLS, trees > 20 cm girth at breast height (gbh)
were enumerated from 1 0 random sample plots, each 50 x 50 m,
covering about 9% of home range of the study group (27.8
ha). In Sepahijala WLS, 12 strip transects were randomly laid
within the home range of Group-S covering about 62% of the
home range (20.3 ha). The width of each strip was fixed at
40 m while the length varied between 75 m and 525 m.
The group-scan method (Altmann 1974) was used at
both sites to collect data on dietary patterns and other
activities. The study group was scanned for 5 consecutive
days in each month and an interval of 15 minutes was
maintained between two consecutive scans. A total of 1 4, 1 86
and 15,818 records were made in eight months in Gumti WLS
and Sepahijala WLS, respectively. Percent time spent feeding
was estimated from: T = (nf x 1 00)/N, where T = % daytime
spent feeding, nf= number of records that included feeding,
and N = total number of records for the day.
RESULTS
Group-G spent 34.9% (range = 30.6-42.2%) and Group-S
spent 38.5% (range = 32.7-42.6%) of the total activity time
feeding (Fig. 2). There was significant difference between
both the groups in the feeding time (pair test, N=8, Z= -2. 1 ,
p= 0.036) and number of food species consumed annually:
Group-G 18 food species (range 5-10) and Group-S 67 food
species (range 1 8-28) (Fig. 3).
The groups also differed in the number of food species
contributing more than 1 % of total feeding time [ 1 5 species
contributed 78.9% of feeding time in Group-G, while 23 species
contributed 34.3% in Group-S], Together, 31 species
contributed more than 1% of total feeding time, of which 8
species were exclusive to Group-G, 1 6 to Group-S, and 7 were
common to both groups. A significant positive correlation
J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
5
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE'S LANGUR IN TRIPURA
80 -|
70 -
60 -
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Total
Months
Fig. 3: Number of food plant species used by
Group-G and Group-S
existed between time spent feeding and availability of most
food species in their respective home range (rs = 0.747,
p < 0.001 for Group-G and rs = 0.82, p<0.001 for Group-S).
Thus, both groups differed in their use of the seven common
food species according to the abundance of the food species
(Table 1).
Top-ten food species
In Group-G and Group-S, the top-ten food species
accounted for 87.8% and 59.1% of total feeding time,
respectively. Only one species ( Mikania scandens ) was
common to both groups (Table 1). In Group-Q preference for
top-ten food species was in accordance with their abundance
(r = 0.729, p < 0.05), but not so in Group-S (r = 0.309, p> 0. 1 ).
The two groups also differed in the maximum feeding
time spent on a single food species: Group-G on Albizzia
procera (27.8%) and Group-S on Ficus racemosa (7.6%).
Both groups spent almost the same time feeding on
young foliage (about 48%), but differed in the use of other
plant parts. Second to young foliage, Group-G preferred seeds
(23.2%) and Group-S unripe fruit (17.6%). Group-S spent
almost equal durations on mature leaves (5.8%) and seeds
(6%) (Fig. 4).
Furthermore, the two groups differed in their use of
feeding substratum. Group-G never descended to the ground
for feeding, while Group-S spent about 7.3% of the total
feeding time on the ground, feeding on germinating seeds
and ripe fruit (Gupta 1996). Both the groups also differed in
their animal diet; it was higher for Group-S (0.05%) than for
Group-G (0.01%).
Plant parts
Fig. 4: Percent time spent feeding on different plant parts by
Group-G and Group-S
The soil is poor and acidic due to repeated jhum once in
2 to 3 years. The density of Ficus species was low in the
repeated jhum areas compared to non -jhum areas (Gupta 1 996).
The estimated tree density was 280 trees/ha, but the diversity
of food trees used by the Langur was relatively low at
22 species/ha (Gupta and Kumar 1994).
DISCUSSION
Abundance of food plants
Although there was a correlation between abundance
and percentage time spent feeding, the selection of any
particular food species by both groups was not simply a
function of abundance.
One such case is the use of Albizzia procera. In Gumti,
A. procera was less abundant (20 trees/ha) than C. arborea
and moroi (. Albizzia lebbek) (44 and 72 trees/ha, respectively),
but was consumed more (27.9% mostly for seeds) than
C. arborea (16.8%) and moroi {Albizzia lebbek) (1.5%). In
contrast, A. procera was more abundant (2.2 trees/ha) in
SWLS than at least five other top-ten food species {Ficus
racemosa, F. fistulosa, Syzygium fruticosum , Delonix regia
and Dillenia pentagyna ), but its consumption was much less
(almost negligible for seeds) than any of them. Group-S
consumed the seeds of Acacia auriculiformis and Delonix
regia, both less abundant than A. procera. This suggests
that Group-G preferred A. procera, and Group-S preferred
A. auriculiformis and D. regia.
Rudran (1978) studying two groups of Blue Monkeys
{Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni ) concluded that dietary
differences between groups can be explained by differences
in tree species’ density in their home ranges, and by local
variation in phenological activity of food plants. In this study,
6
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE'S LANGUR IN TRIPURA
Table 1 : Percentage time spent feeding and density of food species for Group-G and Group-S of Phayre's langur
Species Group-G Group-S
% Feeding
Density/ha
PI
% Feeding
Density/ha
PI
Albizzia procera'
27 8
20
1.9
-
-
-
Melocanna bambusoides
18.3
nr
-
-
-
-
Calticarpa arborea'
163
44
1 0
-
-
-
Litsea sp. (medda)"
1.7
12
1.5
-
-
Odina wodier
1.3
16
0.1
-
-
-
Albizzia lebbek'
5.3
16
1.5
-
-
-
Albizzia sp (moroi)
1.5
72
0.1
-
-
-
Macaranga denticulata'
1.7
16
1.5
-
-
-
Albizzia stipulata '**
8.5
16
4.2
1.9
0.5
2.9
Gmelina arborea '**
4.1
8
2.6
2.4
0.2
17 9
Mikania scandens
2.1
nr
-
6.0
nr
-
Dioscorea alata ***
2.1
nr
-
3.1
nr
-
Ficus hispida "
1.3
nr
-
6.7
9.7
3.0
Ficus indica **
0.9
160
0.9
4.3
2.4
1.7
Terminalia bellerica **
1.5
nr
-
2.0
6.8
0.4
Gardenia turgida
-
-
-
1.3
0.1
35 3
Ficus fistulosa'
-
-
-
7.4
0.4
21.9
Ficus racemosa'
-
-
-
7.6
0.2
14.7
Syzygium fruticosum'
-
-
-
5.8
0.4
134
Delonix regia
-
-
-
5.6
0.5
9.8
Streblus asper
-
-
-
1.9
1.3
9.3
Adenanthera pavonma
-
-
-
3.6
0.9
60
Artocarpus lakoocha
-
-
-
3.9
2.2
0.7
Stereospermum personatum
-
-
-
1.2
0.4
40
Swietenia mahogani
-
-
-
2.5
2.2
2.8
Dillenia pentagyna'
-
-
-
4.0
2.2
1.6
Hevea braziliensis
-
-
-
2.2
4.5
1.2
Acacia auriculiformis'
-
-
-
6.7
18 7
0.9
Artocarpus chaplasha'
-
-
-
4.8
6.6
0.7
Vitex peduncularis
-
-
-
1.1
2.8
0.1
Schima wallichii
-
-
-
1.0
22.6
0 1
nr = not represented
’ = Top-ten food species
** = 7 common food species for both groups
PI = Preference Index
however, differences in soil condition and other geographical
variations did not have any effect on the productivity cycle
(phenology) of different plant parts (Gupta and Kumar 1994;
Gupta 1996) of A. procera flowering and fruiting normally at
Gumti and Sepahijala.
Habitat disturbance and adaptability
Dietary differences in the two groups can also be
attributed to the changes in the habitat following various
types of human disturbances. Repeated jhum may lead to
poor acidic soils (Ramakrishnan 1992) that could have been
the case in Gumti WLS favouring leguminous trees
(A. procera), which would result in more seed eating (23.2%).
Recent studies on African colobines (Maisels et at. 1994;
Gartlan et al. 1986; Oates et al. 1990) have shown that
(a) relative abundance of legumes increases with increasing
soil poverty. Increasing abundance of legumes increases the
availability of nutrient rich seeds, and hence there is more
seed eating; (b) the seeds and young leaves of leguminous
trees are frequently nutrient rich and among the preferred
food of colobines, though legume species are often associated
with nutrient-poor soil (Richards 1977).
No feeding by Group-S on A. procera seeds could be
associated with their poor nutrient value in Sepahijala. The
preference for seeds of A. auriculiformis and D. regia could
be associated with differences in nutrient values vis-a-vis
A. procera. However, a chemical analysis of A. procera seeds
for their nutrient values, from both study sites, is a must for
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
7
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE'S LANGUR IN TRIPURA
comparison with the nutrient values of other food species
(bamboo, Callicarpa arborea and A. stipulata in Gumti; and
Ficus racemosa , F. fistulosa , A. auriculiformis, F. hispida in
Sepahijala). Johns et al. (1978) showed that the levels of certain
chemicals in plants differ among geographic localities, with
the result that they are eaten more in some areas than in
others. In addition, studies on Howler Monkeys (Glander 1981)
and Spider Monkeys (Van Roosmalen 1982) have shown that
the selection of individual food trees was associated with
their intraspecific differences in nutrients and secondary
compounds.
In Gumti, low plant diversity due to jhum restricted the
choice of food plants for Group-G, which used only 19 food
species. Of these, 5 species accounted for more than 75%
feeding time, including one single species (A. procera)
contributing 27.8% feeding time. In Sepahijala, jhum was
absent and human disturbance was restricted to trespassing,
collection of minor forest products, and illicit felling. As a
measure to counter these disturbances, the natural forest
patches were fortified with plantations (including Acacia
auriculiformis , Delonix regia , Gmelina arborea , Artocarpus
lakoocha, A. chaplasha, Caesalpinia pulcherrima ,
Leucaena leucocephala and A denanthera pavonina ) offering
more choice of food items to Group-S (67 food species and no
single species accounted for more than 8% of total feeding
time).
CONCLUSION
Dietary differences between two groups of Phayre’s
Langur could be explained as a combined result of various
factors. All these factors are inter-related and influence the
dietary patterns of the langurs. Of the different factors
discussed, adaptability of the langurs to the changes in their
respective habitats, however, appears to be the most
important. Adaptability allowed Group-G and Group-S to
survive under different habitat conditions. This adaptability
hypothesis does provide information on preferences for
specific food plant species by both the groups. Information
on preferred food plant species by each group could be vital
to wildlife managers, while selecting suitable plant species
while undertaking gap or new plantations as wildlife habitat
improvement measure.
Detailed knowledge on the feeding ecology of an animal
species is one of the most important requirements for
designing its conservation strategy. Based on the differences
observed in the dietary patterns of two groups of Phayre’s
Langur in closely located Gumti and Sepahijala Wildlife
Sanctuaries, the conservation strategy for this species will
have to be specialized for a given habitat type. This may also
hold good for other indicator wildlife species in closely located
Protected Areas. It would, thus, be imperative for wildlife
managers to opt for species- and area-specific ecological
studies on key indicator/flagship wildlife species for effective
planning and execution of suitable conservation strategies at
microhabitat levels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, India; Forest Department,
Government ofTripura, Tripura (India); Wildlife Institute of
India, DehraDun, India; University of Cambridge, Cambridge,
UK; World Conservation Society, USA; National Geographic
Society, USA; International Primatological Society, USA; and
American Society of Primatology, USA. I thank Dr. Ruth
Laidlaw, London for useful comments on the first draft of
this paper.
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Herrenschmidt). Strasbourg, Univ. Louis Pasteur.
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Gupta, A.K. (1998): A note on a review of the taxonomic status of
Phayre’s langur (Trachypithecus phayrei) in Tripura, North-
east India. Folia Primatologica 69(1): 22-27 .
Gupta, A.K. & A. Kumar ( 1 994): Feeding ecology and conservation of
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the Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrei) in northeast India.
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langur (Presbytis geei) into the wild in Tripura. India. Indian
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Johns, A. D.. R.J. Keymer & W.M. Ellis (1978): Cyanogenesis in plants
and animal feeding. Pp. 21-34. In: Biochemical Aspects of Plants
and Animal Co-Evolution (Ed.: Harborne, J.B.). Academic Press,
London.
Kummer. H. (1971). Primate Societies. Aldine Press. Chicago. 160 pp.
Maisels, F., A. Gautier-Hion & J.P. Gautier (1994): Diets of two
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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
9
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
10-15
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY - 41. FAMILY: EMBERIZIDAE: BUNTINGS'
Saraswathy Unnithan2
(Contd. from JBNHS 101(3): 360-373)
'Accepted May, 2003
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S B Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Email bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net. in, saraswathyu@hotmail.com
Present Address: 1304 A, .lal Vayu Vihar, PO I I T., Powai, Mumbai 400 076, Maharashtra, India.
This part deals with 466 specimens belonging to 21
species and subspecies up to Synopsis Number 2060 of the
Indian handbook (10: 234) and one extralimital specimen. We
do not have specimens of one subspecies in our collection.
2041 Miliaria calandra Linnaeus (Sweden) Corn
Bunting 3:218.
17: 7 males, 6 females, 4 unsexed (1 missing*)
1 Mosul, Iraq, 1 Kut, 1 Feluja, Euphrates,
Mesopotamia, 1 Zee, Girdal, Pusht-e-Kuh, 1 DU Khusha,
3 Mishun, 1 Tang Talao, Persian Gulf, 1 Sheik Saad,
1 Kazerun, Persia, 2 Shustar, S. Persia, 1 Katunak 8 m SE of
Shiraz, 1 Baba Hazi, 19 m SE of Shiraz, 1* Dachigam,
Kashmir, 1 Jhang, Maghiana, Pakistan.
The specimens were collected between February 1917
and February 1926, mainly from localities in the Persian Gulf
by Hotson, Cheesman, Pitman, Baily, LaPersonne and Kafit,
except the Jhang specimen collected by C.B. Ticehurst in
December 1917, the second record for the Indian region.
Measurements on p. 11
2042 Emberiza leucoceplialus leucocephalus S.G.
Gmelin (Astrakhan) Pine Bunting 3: 202.
27: 14 males, 10 females, 3 unsexed.
1 Kilia, Drosh, 6 Chitral, Drosh, 1 Parachinar NWFP,
1 Wana, Waziristan, 2 Hygam, Kashmir, 2 Lahore, 1 Patiala
State, 1 Koti State, 1 Daraspur, 4 Jagadri, 1 Ambala,
2 Chandigarh, 4 Peking, China.
The Chinese specimens were collected by Maj. H.J.
Walton on February 25, 1901 and Chitral specimens by Perreau
in March 1903. The rest date back from 1909 to 1922, and a
single specimen from Parachinar to February 1944.
Very distinct from other buntings, there can be a slight
confusion with the female White-capped (£. steward), but
the larger size and bolder streaks separate it from the smaller
White-capped females.
Measurements on p. 11
2043 Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli (Carniola)
Black-headed Bunting 3:213.
80: 49 (2 by plumage) males, 26 females (1 missing*), 5
unsexed.
2 Tamb Island, Mesopotamia, 5 Feluja, R. Euphrates,
3 Shiraz, 2 Amara, 2 Bid-e-zard, 2 Mishun, 1 Bushire, Persian
Gulf, 1 Robkan, Tuhat, 2 Bagh-Dil-Khussa, 1 Bagh Rezi,
1 Ieghab, 108 m.s. ofKalat, 1 Kochau, Greshag, 122m.s.w. of
Kalat, 1 Koral, 107 m.s. ofKalat, 1 Teghat, 107 m.s. ofKalat,
1 Kalat*, 1 Sunit-i-Fasil, 6 m. s.w. of Gusht, 2 Harboi,
Baluchistan 1 Pulabgimi, 1 Hyderabad, Sind, 1 Karachi,
1 Chobari, Kutch, 2 Dohad, 1 Gir forest, Amreli dist; 1 Changalra,
1 Bhuj, 1 Rapar, 1 Kuar Bet, Bunni, Kutch, 1 Dabka, Baroda,
1 Amjhera, Gwalior, 1 Indore. One line type 1 Pachora,
E. Khandesh, 1 Suria Mahal, 3 Nasik, 1 Sanpada, Belapur
Road, 4 Belapur, 1 Panvel, 14 Bhiwandi, 1 Wada, Thana Dist.,
1 Kalyan, 1 Andheri, 1 Santacruz, 1 Khandala, 2 Poona,
1 Ratnagiri, 1 Molem, Goa, 1 Cage bird, 1 Bombay market.
Measurements on p. 11
2044 Emberiza bruniceps Brandt (Turkmenia) Red-
headed Bunting 3:215.
23 : 20 (3 by plumage) males, 3 females.
2 Kain, Persia, 1 Yepchan, Chinese Turkestan,
1 Kashgar, China, 1 Chitral, 2 Chitral Drosh, 3 Cawnpur,
2 Surwaya, Gwalior, 1 Berar, 2 Crawford market, Bombay,
2 Tiretta Bazar*, Calcutta.
A male specimen, no. 7914 collected from Surwaya,
Gwalior by Salim Ali on March 18, 1938 is a freak as far as the
bill is concerned, with an upper mandible of 24 mm and a
lower mandible of 1 8.5 mm, which is almost double the normal
length. *Two male specimens purchased from Tiretta Bazar,
Calcutta (=Kolkata) by C.M. Inglis have very small wings and
were not included in the measurements. One of them is a
partial albino with white wings.
The females are difficult to separate from the females of
Black-headed Bunting as they are similar in size, but they
differ in having a smaller bill, and rump with a yellow wash.
Measurements on p. 1 1
2045 Emberiza rutila Pallas (Onon R., SE. Transbaicalia)
Chestnut Bunting 3:216.
8: 6 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed
3 Peking, China, 2 Nyannggyo, 1 Paukkaung, 2 Prome
Dist., Myanmar.
A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
MEASUREMENTS PART 41
Wing (mm)
Bill (mm)
Tarsus (mm)
Tail (mm)
2041 Miliaria calandra
Males 7
98-105 av 100.7
11.8-13 av.12.4
24-27 av 25.6
69-76 av 72.5
(IH m/f 89-101
from skull 12-15
24-27
67-76)
Females 6
91-98 av. 94
10.7-12.2 av. 11.5
24-25 3 av 24 6
64-69 av. 66 5
2042 Emberiza leucocephalus leucocephalus
Males 14
90-95 av. 91.3
10-11.5 av. 10.5
19.5-21.5 av 20.3
74-80 av 76 1
(IH m/f 88-96
from skull 12-14
c 20
78-82)
Females 10
86-93 av 88
10-11.1 av 10.6
19 5-21 av. 20.2
67-78 av 72.1
2043 Emberiza melanocephala
Males 49
83-98 av. 95.1
12.5-15 av 13 4
20-24 2 av 22
66-80 av 71 6
(IH 92-100
from skull 15-17
20-23
68-78)
Females 25
84-90 av 87.1
11.5-13 7 av 12.7
20 5-23 av. 21.7
62-72 av. 67 5
(IH 85-92
from skull 16-17
21-22
65-71)
2044 Emberiza bruniceps
Males 18
84-90 av. 87 1
11 3-13.3 av. 12 4
19-23 av 21
64-74 av 69
(IH 85-90
from skull 16-17
19-22
69-70)
Females 3
80 (2), 84
112, 117, 12
20 5 (3)
66 (2), 70
(IH 82-85
from skull 15-16
19-22
65-67)
2045 Emberiza rutila
Males 6
72-78 av 74 6
9 5-10 8 av. 9.9
18.7-20 av 19 1
52-59 av. 56 8
(IH m/f 74-77
from skull c 14
19-20
56-59)
Female 1
69
9.8
19.3
53
2046 Emberiza aureola aureola
Males 18
72-82 av 76.2
10-12 av 11
20-21 7 av 20 6
51-64 av 57.1
(IH 77-83
from skull 13-14
20-21
57-68)
Females 3
69, 71, 73
9 8, 10 3, 10 5
18.5, 19.5, 20
50, 53 (2)
(IH 72-76
from skull 13-14
20-21
54-60)
2047 Emberiza spodocephala sordida
Males 4
70-75 av. 72
10-11 av. 10 3
19.5-20 5 av. 20
56-64 av 60 2
(IH m/f 74-79
from skull 14-15
c. 19
60-64)
Female 1
70
10.5
20 5
64
2048 Emberiza steward
Males 18
76-85 av. 80.5
9 3-10 8 av. 10
17.2-19.5 av. 18 5
66-75 av 70 7
(IH 78-82
from skull 12-14
18-19
64-70)
Females 12
71-79 av. 75
9.7-10 5 av. 10 1
18-19 av. 18 4
64-73 av 67.2
(IH 72-81
from skull 12-14
18-19
64-70)
2049 Emberiza horiulana
Males 8
81-92 av. 88 2
10.2-11 av. 104
19-21 av. 19 6
62-71 av 67
(IH 80-92
from skull c. 14
19-20
62-68)
Female 1
80
11
19.5
60
(IH 78-90
from skull c. 14
19-20
62-68
2050 Emberiza buchanani buchanani
Males 11
86-93 av. 88 1
10-11.6 av 11
18 7-20.5 av 19.9
70-76 av. 72.5
(IH 85-93
from skull 13-15
19-22
69-79)
Females 4
79-84 av. 82.3
10 2-11 av. 10.6
19.5-20.4 av. 19 9
65-73 av. 68.3
(IH 81-88
from skull 12-15
19-20
67-72)
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
11
A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
MEASUREMENTS PART 41 ( contd .)
Wing (mm)
Bill (mm)
Tarsus (mm)
Tail (mm)
2051-52 Emberiza cia subspp
Males
E c par 10
82-88 av 85.4
10-11 av. 10.3
19-21.2 av. 19 8
75-81 av. 77 9
(IH 80-87
from skull 13-14
19-21
75-81)
E.c. stracheyi 31
75-89 av. 82.4
10-11 av. 10.5
19 5-21 av. 20.9
67-82 av. 75.1
(IH 75-89
from skull 13-14
19-21
71-79)
Females
E.C- par 12
78-83 av. 80.7
9 5-10 7 av 10
19 5-20 5 av. 19 9
72-75 av 73.8
(IH m/f 78-87
from skull 13-14
19-21
66-79)
E.c. stracheyi 11
76-88 av 79 5
10-11.5 av. 10.5
19 5-20.5 av. 19 9
69-78 av 72 4
2053a
Emberiza godlewskii khamensis
Males 2
88, 92
11, 114
20 8, 21.2
81, 88
(Clive Byers -
from skull -
16 6-19 5
77.5-91)
83-89.5
12.2-14.9
Female 1
93
11.6
21
88
(Clive Byers
from skull -
17.3-19 3
76.5-81.5)
79.5-83
1 2 3-14.3
2055,
2055a Emberiza fucata subspp.
Males
E f arcuata 7
68-73 av. 70 1
10-11 av 10.4
20-21 av. 20.5
60-70 av. 65.1
(IH 69-71
from skull 15-16
22-23
65-67)
E f. fucata 2
68, 71
10.2, 11
20 5, 21
61 (2)
(IH m/f 71-76
from skull 15-16
22-23
62-65)
2056 Emberiza pusilla
Males 24
68-77 av. 71 4
8 5-9 7 av. 9
17-19 av 18 2
53-66 av 57.2
(IH m/f 66-74
from skull 10-13
17-22
54-61)
Females 9
67-73 av. 70
8.5-9.7av. 8 9
18-19 av. 18 5
55-60 av. 56 3
2057 Emberiza striolata
Males 11
76-81 av. 78 7
9-10.1 av. 9 5
16-17 av. 16.5
59-64 av. 61.1
(IH 73-85
from skull 11-13
15-16
56-65)
Females 3
75 (2), 78
9.5 (3)
16.5, 17 (2)
56, 59, ml
(IHb72-80
from skull 11-13
15-16
56-63)
2058-59 Emberiza schoeniclus subspp.
Males
E s. pallidior 9
71-85 av. 79
8-9 7 av. 9
19-21 av. 19.9
57-68av. 63.5
(IH 80-85
fom skull c. 13
c 21
65-70)
E s pyrrhuloides 4
81-88 av.83.2
10-11.2 av. 10.4
20-22.5 av. 21.5
69-77 av. 72 2
(IH 77-80
fom skull 12-14
20-22
72-80)
Females
E s. pallidior 10
68-79 av 74 4
8 2-9 5 av. 8 9
18 5-20 av. 19 6
59-69 av. 63.3
(IH 71-79
from skull c. 13
c 21
65-70)
E.s. pyrrhuloides 1
80
10.5
21
73
(IH 75-83
from skull 12-12
20-22
72-80)
EL Emberiza citrinella
Males 2
83, 92
10 5 (2)
19, 20
70, 73
(Clive Buyers -
from skull -
17-21 3
62-79)
80-97 1 0.7-1 3 9
12
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
MEASUREMENTS PART 41 (contd.)
Wing (mm) Bill (mm) Tsrsus (mm) Tail (mm)
2060 Melophus lathami
Males 32
76-86 av 82
(IH 79-86
10.5-12.9 av. 11 6
from skull 13-16
20-22 av 20 7
19-21
64-73 av 67
61-69)
Females 15
75-81 av 77 6
(IH 76-80
10.1-12 av. 11.1
fom skull 13-16
19 5-21.5 av
19-21
62- 68 av. 64
63- 69)
A small, colourful finch with a fine bill. The unsexed
specimen collected from Paukkaung on January 17, 1929 by
J.K. Stanford is a juvenile with streaks on the crown and
mantle, and chestnut rump and uppertail coverts.
Measurements on p. 11
2046 Emberiza aureola aureola Pallas (Irtysh River,
Siberia) Yellow-breasted Bunting 3:210.
22: 1 8 males (2 by plumage), 3 females, 1 unsexed.
1 Jagadri, Ambala, 4 Goalpara, 2 Dibrugarh Assam,
I Moirang, Manipur, 3 Kyitha, I Padaung, 1 Prome,
1 Myogurin, / Henzada, Myanmar, I Temple of Heaven,
2 Peking, China, 4 Bombay market.
Two specimens purchased from Bombay (=Mumbai)
market (said to have come from Assam) and one from Peking,
collected on June 7, 1901 are in full male breeding plumage
with black forehead, face and chin. There are four males from
Myanmar, collected on March 1929; one a juvenile with heavy
streaks on the crown and mantle, and the other three are
attaining breeding plumage, the chins are turning black, still
retaining the pale tips to the chestnut mantle.
Measurements on p. 1 1
2047 Emberiza spodocepliala sordida Blyth (Mepal)
Black-faced Bunting 3:212.
5: 4 males, 1 female
1 North Lakhimpur, Assam, 4 Peking, China.
Three males and one female specimens collected from
Peking on May 1901 by Major H.J. Walton are not in good
condition. The Lakhimpur specimen collected by Stuart Baker
on March 11,1 902 is in fairly good condition, marked as female
on the original label, seems to be a male by plumage.
Measurements on p. II
2048 Emberiza steward (Blyth) (Landour and Dehra
Dun) White-capped Bunting 3:203.
30: 18 males, 12 females.
6 Chitral, 1 Kashmir, 2 Rawalpindi, 1 Razani, Waziristan,
1 Quetta, 1 Chagai Hills, Baluchistan, 1 Koti, 2 Kalka, Bhagat,
2 Simla, NWH, 1 Ambala, 1 Ashni River, Patiala, 1 Indsi,
1 Pipli. Karnal, 2 Ganges Canal, Meerut, 2 Bharatpur, 2 Sunda
Hills, Jaswantpur, 2 Narwar Fort, Gwalior, 1 Hingolgadh,
Jasdan.
These specimens were collected during 1 886 to 1 939.
Easily separated from other buntings, by the grey head
and upper breast, black eyestripe and throat in the male.
Female has streaked head and mantle, and chestnut
rump.
The unsexed Quetta specimen (December 1 888 ) is very
pale sandy brown with dark chestnut streaks on the head
and mantle.
Measurements on p. 11
2049 Emberiza hortulana Linnaeus (Europa = Sweden)
Ortolan Bunting 3:209.
9: 8 males, 1 female.
1 River Tanhat, Yemen, 1 Feluja, River Euphrates ,
Mesopotamia, 1 Shaiba, 1 Basra, Iraq, I Akbarabad 52°
47' E, 29° 13 N, I Bushire, 1 Kazerun, 1 Kain, I Qabr-un-
Nokada Is. Khor Musa, Persia
The specimens were collected between March 1897
(male, Busra, W.D. Cumming) and April 1923 (male, Khor
Musa, LaPersonne). Very similar to Grey-necked Bunting,
but can be separated by the greyish breast band, pale yellow
throat and sub-moustachial stripe and boldly streaked brown
mantle. Tertials have sharply defined dark brown centres.
Measurements on p II
2050 Emberiza buchanani buchanani Blyth (Indian
Peninsula) Grey-necked Bunting 3:208.
18:11 males, 4 females, 3 unsexed.
1 Tehran , 1 Korak, Kalat, I Wahi, Khodgar, 25 m. sw of
Khojdar, Baluchistan, 1 Karachi, 1 Mata-no-Madh. I Bhujia
Fort, Kutch, I Deesa, Palanpur, 1 Patan, Mehsana, 1 Dhari,
Amreli, Kathiawar, 2 Dohad, Panchmahals, 1 Bodeli, Baroda,
1 Thana, 1 Karjat, 1 Poona Sholapur Road, 30 miles from
Poona. 1 Satara, 1 Aurangabad, 1 No locality.
The specimens date back from 1888(Maj. H.J. Walton,
Satara) to 1 968. All except one (unsexed specimen collected
from Tehran by Cheesman on June 16, 1919) are in winter,
non-breeding plumage.
Measurements on p. 1 1
205 1 Emberiza cia par Hartert (Gudan, Transcaspia)
Transcaspian Rock Bunting.
22: 10 males, 12 females
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
13
A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
2 Tashkent, Ushek, 1 Kashgar, China, 1 Elbreznits,
Tehran, Iran, 1 Attock, 1 Pushkum, Ladakh, 1 Choi, nr
Campbellpur, 1 Taxila, 2 Rawalpindi, 1 Jammu, 1 Lahore,
3 Chandigarh, 1 Bahawalpur town env., 1 Harunabad,
1 Chachran, 1 Lalsohara, 2 Manthar, Cholistan, Bahawalpur.
The very distinct head pattern of grey crown with black
coronal stripes, on either side, separates the Rock Bunting
from the other buntings. E.c. par is paler and less rufous
above, buffish belly with a light chestnut wash. Median and
greater coverts dark brown with light fulvous margins.
Measurements on p. 12
2052 Emberiza cia stracheyi Moore (Kumaon)
Himalayan Rock Bunting 3: 205.
51:31 males, 1 1 females, 9 unsexed
2 Chitral Kesun, 3 Chitral, 2 Chitral Drosh, 1 Bamhal
village, Kashmir, 2 Naolal village, 3 miles below Yus, 1 Near
Yus, 3 Liddar valley, 1 Bangar Nulla, Kishtwar, Kashmir,
1 Marwatur Range, Waziristan, 1 Dalhousie, Punjab, 2 Gasa,
Kulu, Himachal Pradesh, 1 Narkanda, 14 Simla 1 Kotgarh, Simla
Hills, 1 Mashobra, 2 Koti 1 Fagu, 1 Keonthal, 1 Lambathach,
7 Garhwal, 1 Patiala, 1 Kevalea, 1 Gyadzong, S. Tibet.
A much darker race than par. Mantle is chestnut-brown
streaked with black and the belly is a deeper rufous-chestnut.
Median and greater coverts dark brown with light rufous
brown margins.
Measurements on p. 12
2053 Emberiza cia khamensis Sushkin (River Dza-chu,
Upper Mekong) Tibetan Rock Bunting 3: 207.
See notes on 2053a
2053a Emberiza godlewskii khamensis Taczanowski
(E. Siberia) 1 874 Godlewski’s Bunting 3: 207.
3: 2 males and 1 female
The specimens were collected by A.F.R. Wollaston from
Kharta, 12500', S. Tibet in August 1921, during the first
Mt. Everest Expedition, and are mentioned by Sir N.B. Kinnear
in Ibis, 1922: 495-526. They are marked E. cia godlewskii
(Godlewski’s Meadow Bunting) in the original label, as in
Stuart Baker’s fauna of British india 3: 207. The distribution
is given as Northern China and southeast Tibet, wintering in
Sikkim and hills of Northern Assam.
“The birds are in a very worn and faded state of plumage
which renders identification a matter of some difficulty”
according to the collector. But I could observe a few
characters in the specimens, which warrants their placement
in Godlewski’s Bunting rather than in Rock Bunting. In
Emberiza cia (Rock Bunting), sexes can be separated by
plumage, but in godlewskii there is little difference between
the sexes. Even in the much worn plumage, the upper wing
bar is pure white instead of the buffish wing bar of Rock
Bunting. The very prominent head pattern of the Rock Bunting
is absent here. There are a few grey feathers on the centre of
the crown with dark chestnut feathers laterally, not forming
any striped pattern. Other characters mentioned in buntings
and sparrows by Clive Byers, Urban Olsson and Jon Curson,
1 996, are not apparent in our specimens. I am placing them in
khamensis based on distribution, since I did not have other
races to compare with.
Measurements on p. 12
2054 Emberiza cia yunnanensis Sharp (Gyi-dzin-shan,
east of Talifu) Yunnan Rock Bunting 3:207.
Nil.
2055 Emberiza fucata arcuata Sharpe (Himalayas,
restricted to Simla by Baker) Indian Grey-headed Bunting
3: 199.
8: 7 males, 1 unsexed
1 Dachigam, 1 Bhadrawar, Kashmir, 1 Fagu, Keonthal,
3 Yoshimadh, Garhwal, 1 Ambala, Punjab, 1 The Fimba?
The key in Indian Handbook correctly separates
arcuata from the nominate subspecies by its pure grey head
and rich chestnut upper parts. In addition to these, the ear
coverts are deeper chestnut and streaks on the head are
broader than those of the nominate subspecies.
Measurements on p. 12
2055a Emberiza fucata fucata Pallas (Onon and Ingoda
Rivers) Amur Grey-headed Bunting.
3: 2 males, 1 unsexed.
1 Peking, China, 1 N. Lakhimpur, Assam, 1 Moirang,
Manipur.
The head is brownish with a touch of grey and finer
streaks. Upper parts and ear coverts light chestnut compared
to arcuata.
Measurements on p. 12
2056 Emberiza pusilla Pallas (Transbaikalian Alps)
Little Bunting 3:200.
44: 24 males, 9 females, 1 1 unsexed.
Hawiplain, Mesopotamia, 4 Temple of Heaven,
10 Peking, China', 2 Temi, W. Sikkim, 2 Sikkim, 1 Batase,
1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan, 2 Rongtong, 3 Wamrong, 5 Gomchu,
1 Deothang, E. Bhutan, 1 Bhutan duars, 6 Goalpara, 1 Shillong,
Assam, 1 Taungup Pass, Prome, 1 Prome, I South Shan States,
Myanmar, 1 Bareily Market.
The fourteen Chinese specimens were collected by
Maj. H.J. Walton in October 1900 to May 1907, and Bhutan
specimens in February /March 1966 and March-April 1967 by
SalimAli.
A small bunting with a deep rufous, central coronal
stripe and two broad black stripes on the sides of the crown,
not likely to be confused with any other bunting, except
perhaps with the female Reed Bunting, but can be separated
by the rufous streaking on breast and flanks, whiter lower
14
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
breast and belly; forked tail with pointed rectrices, the
outermost pair being almost white.
Measurements on p. 12
2057 Emberiza striolata (Lichtenstein) (Ambukol,
Nubia) Striolated Bunting 3:217.
18:11 males (3 by plumage), 3 females, 4 unsexed.
3 Charbar, Persian Gulf, 2 Burida Pass, Kalat, 1 Jaun
Khozdar, 1 Chaman, Baluchistan, 1 Sind, 1 Mubarakpur near
Ambala, 1 Chandigarh, 2 Lai Sohara, Bahawalpur, 1 Bhujia
Fort, 1 Bhuj, 1 Kutch, 1 Deesa, Palanpur, 1 Hingolgadh, Jasdan,
1 Indore.
A bunting with characteristic black streaks on a greyish-
white head. Female has sandy brown crown with dark brown
streaks. Shorter tail with almost roundish tips to the rectrices,
lacks white in the tail. The outer margin and tips of outer pair
of rectrices dark rufous. Sexes easily distinguishable.
Measurements on p. 12
2058 Emberiza schoenidus pallidior Hartert (Aiderli,
Turkestan) Central Asian Reed Bunting 3: 197.
22: 9 males, 10 females, 3 unsexed.
1 Oxfordshire, 1 Kashgar, / Hunting Park, 7 Peking,
1 Khotan, Sinkiang, China; / Sheik Saud, 1 Amara,
/ Mesopotamia, 1 Chaman, Baluchistan, 1 Attock, River Indus,
1 Campbellpur, 3 Rawalpindi, 2 Jagadri, Ambala, Punjab.
All specimens were collected during winter, November/
December 1900 to March 1931. The black head, cheeks,
chin and throat of the males have a mottled appearance, due
to the brown fringes of feathers. Females have a streaked
head.
Measurements on p. 12
2059 Emberiza schoeniclus pyrrltuloides Pallas
(Astrakhan) Thick-billed Reed Bunting. Nil
6: 4 males (1 by plumage), 1 female, 1 unsexed.
2 Engeli, Persia, I Yarkand, 2 Keriya, I Khotan,
Sinkiang, China.
Paler, larger version of E.s. pallidior, with a highly arched
stouter bill. Female and the unsexed in female plumage have
light brown and blackish-brown streaked head. One of the
Engeli males - 7940 (28. vi. 1919, R.E. Cheesman) is in female
plumage with streaked head, but with the characteristic
conspicuous, broad, buff supercilium of the male. The second
Engeli male - 7939 (28.vi.1919, R.E. Cheesman), Keriya male
(25.ii.1931, A. Sheriff) and the Yarkand specimen, male by
plumage (6.iv. 1 93 1 , A. Shirriff), all have pure black crown,
face, chin and throat, without any light fringes to the feathers.
The Engeli specimen (7939) has a brownish-black mantle and
dark grey rump, instead of the fulvous and brown streaked
mantle and sandy brown rump of the other two males.
Only once recorded from Indian limits at Wular Lake,
Kashmir on March 20 by Meinertzhagen (Ibis 1927: 394), the
inclusion of this race in Indian limits is doubtful.
Measurements on p. 12
EL. Emberiza citrinella Linnaeus (Sweden) Yellow
Hammer
2 males
I Hem el, Hampstead, Herts, U.K., 1 Russia
Measurements on p. 12
2060 Melophus lathami (Gray) (Canton, Kwangtung)
Crested Bunting. 3:221.
49: 32 males, 1 5 females, 2 unsexed.
1 Bhagat, 1 Jabli, 1 Koti, NWH, 1 Gupta Kashi,
1 Mussooree, 1 Ranikhet, 1 Kedarmal, Almora, 1 Sonaripur,
Kheri Dt., 1 Patiala, 1 Ambala, 1 SundaHill, 1 Jaswantpur Dt.,
1 Narwar Fort, Gwalior, 1 Indore, 1 Dohad, 2 Dediapada,
Rajpipla, 1 Kolkaz, Melghat, Berar, 1 Bees Aam, Amravati,
Melghat, 2 Wagheri, 1 Trimbok road, Nasik, 1 Raita, 1 Wada,
1 Ambatti, Wada road, Thana, 3 Bhiwandi, 1 Khandala, 2 Poona,
1 Mahabaleshwar, 1 Sanchi, Bhopal, 1 Shahaga, 1 Bina, Saugar
Dt., 1 Kawnpur, U.P., 6 Baghownie, Darbhanga, 2 Shamgong,
Central Bhutan, 1 Rongtong, East Bhutan, I Phulguri,
N. Kamrup, Assam, 1 Prome Dt., I Kamaing, I Mong,
U. Burma, I Jaunggyi, Southshan States, Myanmar.
The specimens were collected from March 1886 to
February 1976. 5 males in female plumage are smaller than the
rest of the males and excluded while calculating the average of
measurements. 6 males in April, one each in May and August,
the rest are all collected during the winter. Among females, one
each in April and June, and the rest in winter. Males collected in
end January and February from Nasik, Bhiwandi, Shahgarh and
Sonaripur have pure black feathers on the crest, mantle and
abdomen, whereas 4 females collected in end-March to April
from Rongtong, Shamgong (2) and Prome have light brown
fringes to the black feathers of mantle and crest.
Measurements on p. 13
(Concluded)
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
15
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
16-18
DORSAL SPOT PATTERN AS UNIQUE MARKERS TO ESTIMATE
THE POPULATION SIZE OF RAN A CURTIPES 1
SavithaN. Krishna2-3 Sharath B. Krishna2-4 and K.K. Vijayalaxmi 5
'Accepted June, 2003
department of Biosciences, Hemagangothri, Hassan 573 220, Karnataka, India.
’Email savithakn@hotmail.com
4Email: bsharath@sancharnet.in
’Department of Applied Zoology, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri, Mangalore 574 199, Karnataka, India.
Email: kkv@vasnet.co.in
Marking animals with unique marks is necessary for estimating population densities when using the Capture-Recapture
Method. The dorsal spot pattern method to identify individuals is considered best for such studies, as it does not cause
any physical injury to the animal. Dorsal spot pattern in the bicoloured frog, Rana curtipes is shown to be an
appropriate method to identify individuals. While studying the population size and density of Rana curtipes in the
Western Ghats we identified 160 frogs in the Western Ghats of Karnataka by the spot patterns on their dorsum. An
identification catalogue, based on the total spot count, spotting patterns and size was prepared for each individual.
Key words: Rana curtipes , marking, capture-recapture, photo identification. Western Ghats
Many ecological studies of animals, including
population studies, space-use patterns or growth rates,
depend on individual-specific marks. Several external marking
techniques, like paint, PIT tags and tattoos for reptiles, jaw
tagging and dye markers for fishes, leg ring for birds and toe
clipping for small mammals (Donnelly et al. 1994), have been
employed to identify individuals. All these marking techniques
involve capture and handling of the animals. Some of the
markings are permanent or long lasting, while some are short-
lived. Unique natural markings have also been used for studies
by a few ecologists. In large mammals like the Tiger, the unique
stripe patterns, photographed using camera traps, were used
as markers (Karanth 1995). Carlstrom and Edelstram (1946)
used photographs of colour patterns on the ventral scales of
grass snakes, the throat of slow worms and the dorsum of
some lizards, to identify them following recapture. Henley
(1981) saved portions of shed skins of study snakes that
included unique features, and attached these to the
specimen’s data card for identifying it later. Shine et al. (1988)
noted the number and relative position of divided subcaudal
scales to identify individual snakes. McDonald et al. (1996)
used the unique appearance of the pineal spot, or “pink spot”,
on the top of the head of Leatherback Sea Turtles to recognise
individuals. Singh and Bustard ( 1 976) recorded the pattern of
pigmented bands and blotches on the tails of hatchling
gharials to identify a large number of juveniles in captivity.
Some different types of tags used to mark amphibians
are fluorescent pigments, toe clipping, tattooing and PIT tags.
Loafman (1991) reports a method of identifying spotted
salamander individuals by spot patterns. He describes each
animal’s pattern as the spots found on head, neck, and body
and limbs. The natural variation in belly pattern of the newt
Urodelta triturus has been used to make a catalogue of
photographs from which identification of an individual is
possible (Sutherland 2000).
While estimating the population size of the free ranging
ranid frog R. curtipes in the tropical rainforests of the Western
Ghats, we identified 1 60 individuals, by the spots on its dorsum.
Rana curtipes is an inhabitant of leaf litter and is endemic to
the Western Ghats of peninsular Indian states of Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and southern Madhya Pradesh (Inger and
Dutta 1986; Daniels 1997). Literature on the distribution (Dutta
1992), reproduction (Krishnamurthy and Shakunthala 1997)
and hormonal studies of the larva (Varamparampil and Oommen
1997) of this frog are available. However, none of these studies
have either used natural pattern mapping to identify
individuals or recorded the population status of the species.
METHODS
We studied the population biology of this species in
the Bisale Reserve Forest adjoining the Coorg hills, 12° 15' N
and 76° 33' E, Karnataka State, India. The study sites were
located on the western slopes of the Western Ghats, ranging
from 350-860 m above msl. The area is a tropical rainforest
(annual average rainfall 5,500 mm) with dense canopy cover
and many perennial hill streams. The study was conducted
from January 1999 to July 2001.
Rana curtipes are forest frogs, feeding on low flying
and crawling insects. They are bicoloured, with olive-golden
yellow back, and uniformly black sides, limbs and belly
(Daniels 1997). The dorsal side of the frog exhibits colour
polymorphism; a majority of them were reddish-yellow and a
few had an ashy grey back. Irrespective of the background.
DORSAL SPOT PATTERN TO ESTIMATE THE POPULATION OF RANA CURTIPES
Fig. 1 : Some examples from the photo catalogue depicting the unique dorsal spot patterns of Rana curtipes and their unique ID numbers
a. Rc 06, b. Rc 123, c. Rc 41, d. Rc 14
PI , part 1; P2, part 2; P3, part 3; PP, parotid patch; SB, Shoulder bone; HB, hipbone; PCS posterior central spot
the dorsal side had numerous black spots with considerable
variation in spot frequencies, size, location and designs. A
reddish parotid patch may be visible. In breeding pairs the
spots were less pronounced, but we did not observe any
correlation of spot number or size to the overall size of the
frog. The newly emerged frog ranged from 15-18 mm snout to
vent length (SVL) (mean SVL 16.5 mm; N=94) and the breeding
adults grew to 68.5 mm SVL (N=38).
In general, the dorsal side is marked with black,
irregularly shaped spots on an ashy grey or reddish-yellow
background (Fig. 1 ). The total number of spots and the pattern
in which they are spread is different in each individual. Based
on the total spot count, size and unique spotting patterns,
we prepared an identification catalogue for each individual.
To make a unique ID for each individual, we divided the
dorsum into three parts; PI, P2, P3 (Fig. 1 ).
Individuals were classified as having high (50 and
above), moderate (>20 but <50), low (> 1 0 but <20) or very
low (< 1 0) spot count depending on the total count of spots
from snout to vent. Once classified, the number of spots in
each region, namely PI, P2 and P3 were counted. Some
individuals with unique patterns on the back were also noted.
The presence or absence of the posterior central spot (PCS)
and parotid patch (PP) was noted. The information was
tabulated as “spot pattern ID catalogue” (Table 1 ). On the
capture of a frog, its SVL and other dorsal spot pattern data
were recorded as per Table 1. An individual identification
number was recorded in the first column.
The dorsum of each individual captured was
photographed using a Nikon F90X camera with flash and AF
Nikkor 105 mm 1 :2.8 D lens to get a shadow-free colour picture.
A photo identification catalogue of all the 160 frogs sampled
in the field was made. All the sampled frogs were released
immediately at the site of capture.
These patterns were found to be unique and helped to
identify individual frogs. The photo catalogue and spot
pattern catalogue was used to identify captured frogs. As
the dorsal spot pattern method is reliable and painless
compared to other methods, we used it to mark R. curtipes to
estimate their population size, using capture-recapture
method. It was noted that no two frogs captured were identical
in the spot pattern nor did the pattern change during the
course of this study.
As Rana curtipes is a forest floor species, the Quadrat
Sampling Method was thought to be more appropriate for
quantitative analysis. Frogs were sampled within 8 x 8 m
random quadrates within the study area and sampled on 5
occasions. Capture-recapture history was recorded.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Using Petersen Estimate (Bailey's modification),
the population size of R. curtipes during 1999-2000 was
estimated to be 272.33 individuals (standard error 10.97) with
a density of 0.08 to 0.1 (N=22 quadrates) frogs per square
metre.
The use of natural markings as a means of identification
is advantageous as there is no physical injury to the animal.
It saves the animal from the stress of capture, marking and
handling. While we used this method of photo catalogue, we
observed that neither did the normal behaviour of the animal
change, nor did the survival rate alter.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
17
DORSAL SPOT PATTERN TO ESTIMATE THE POPULATION OF RAN A CURTIPES
Table 1: Dorsal spot pattern catalogue for Rana curtipes sampled in the Western Ghats of Karnataka
ID No SVL PP Total PI P3 Notable spot pattern on the back
Posterior central spot (PCS)
Rc06
50.20
Rc41
37.42
Rc09 50.30
Rc14
52.55
Rc123 55.41
High 16 30 9 A circle of five spots with a central spot
on the right eyelid On the left shoulder
and right shoulder of P2, two circles
of six spots with a central dot. An
elongated spot touching the left hipbone
Low 2 14 2 A round spot on the intraorbital region
and on the right eyelid Circle of seven
spots with a central spot in the middle
of P2, one spot among the seven is
key shaped At the end of P2,
three spots (one on each hipbone)
forming a triangle if joined
Moderate 4 24 13 A spot on the centre of left eyelid and
one at intraorbital region. Two prominent
spots on the anterior end of the shoulder
bone with a central dot between the
two bones On the right side of P2 “(“
marking
High 23 39 18 A 3 mm oval spot on the snout, a circle
of 4 spots on the right eyelid A circle due
to the joining of 7 spots just before the left
shoulder, on the mid right side of the
frog a big squarish spot (5 mm), "()” mark
on the right hipbone
Very low 2 5 2 A tadpole shaped mark on the anterior
of left hipbone
Elongated like a comma,
but not touching
the vent
Absent
Central elongated spot
touches the vent and
also looks more longer
due to the joining of two
more spots. “Y” at the
vent
Elongated touching the
vent
Faint, touching the vent
Note: Only five individuals have been listed as examples in the table
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Hassan
for permission and support. John G. Frazier offered useful
suggestions during his visit to the field. The students of
Biosciences Department, Hemagangothri, Hassan and the
field staff of the Forest Department provided assistance
during field observations. We are grateful to G. Umesh for
local support. The DAPTF Seed Grant awarded to the first
author supported this work.
REFERENCES
Carlstrom, D. & C. Edelstram (1946): Methods of marking reptiles
for identification after recapture. Nature 168: 748-749.
Daniels, R.J.R (1997): Field guide to the frogs and toads of the Western
Ghats. Cobra 28: 1-20.
Donnelly, M.A., C Guyer, J.E. Juterbock & R.A. Alford (1994):
Techniques for marking Amphibians. Pp. 277-284. In: Measuring
and Monitoring Biological Diversity, Standard Methods for
Amphibians (Eds: Heyer, W.R., M.A. Donnelly, R.W.
McDiarmid, L.C. Hayek & M.S. Foster). Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington D.C., 364 pp.
Dutta, S.K. (1992): Amphibians of India: updated species list with
distribution record. Hamadryad 17: 1-13.
Henley, G.B. (1981): A new technique for recognition of snakes.
Herpetol. Rev 12: 66.
Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the amphibian fauna
of India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (Snppl.): 135-146.
Karanth, K.U. (1995): Estimating tiger populations from camera-
trap data using capture recapture models. Biological
Conservation 71: 333-338.
Krishnamurthy, S.V. & K. Shakunthala(1997): Rana curtipes (Bicolor
frog). Reproduction. Herpetol. Rev. 28: 200-201.
Loafman, P. (1991): Identifying individual spotted salamanders by
spot pattern. Herpetol. Rev. 22: 91-92.
McDonald, D.L, P.H. Dutton, R. Brandner & S. Basford (1996):
Use of pineal spot (“pink spot”) photographs to identify
leatherback turtles. Herpetol Rev. 27(1): 11-12.
Shine. Cooper, N. Shine, R. Shine & D. Slip (1988): Use of subcaudal
scale anomalies as an aid in recognizing individual snakes.
Herpetol. Rev. 19(4): 79-80.
Singh, L.A.K. & H.R. Bustard (1976): A method to identify individual
young gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus). Brit J. Herp. 5: 669-67 1 .
Sutherland, W.J. (2000): Ecological research techniques. Pp. 65-1 10
In: The Conservation Handbook Research, Management and
Policy (Ed. Sutherland, W.J.). Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford,
278 pp.
Varamparampil, T.T. & O.V. Oommen (1997): Tricodo thyronin (T3)
and thyroxine (T4) levels in Rana curtipes during development
and metamorphosis. Indian J. Exp. Biology 35: 1375-1377.
18
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
19-26
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA'
Asham Borang2-6, Bharat B. Bhatt2'7, S. Bordoloi Chaudhury3, A. Borkotoki4 and P.T. Bhutia5
'Accepted June, 2003
2State Forest Research Institute, Van Vihar, Itanagar 791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India
’Department of Zoology, Colton College, Guwahati 781 001, Assam, India Email sabitrybordoloi@rediffmail.com
‘'Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India. Email: aparajitaborkotoki@rediffmail.com
-’Arunachal Field Station, Zoological Survey of India, Itanagar 791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India Email pasang-50@rediffmail.com
6 Email: directorsfri@hotmail.com
7 Email b-bhatt@rediffmail.com
The present paper is an attempt to prepare a checklist of the snake fauna of Arunachal Pradesh. It is largely based on the
first author’s zoological exploration and endangered wildlife mapping in the state, as well as on material examined in
various museums in the state with the second author. It also includes information from published literature. The list
includes 67 species belonging to five families and 3 1 genera. The distribution and status of each species with remarks are
also cited. Brief morphological description of two unidentified species - Trimeresurus sp. (71 stejnegen or T. popeioruml.
Jar No. SFRI-23) and a Keelback species (Jar No. SFRI-81 ) are given.
Key words: checklist, snakes. Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India
INTRODUCTION
Arunachal Pradesh, the erstwhile North East Frontier
Agency (NEFA), which has been identified as one of the
ecological hotspots in the world, is situated between 26° 30' N
to 29° 30' N and 91° 30' E to 97° 30' E. The state has a
geographical area of 83,743 km2. From an elevation of 100 m,
the area encompasses a series of wet and forest covered
rugged mountains and hills, rising up to c. 6,000 m. The annual
rainfall varies from 500 mm to 6,000 mm, spread over 8-9
months. Owing to the varying agro-climatic and altitudinal
conditions, the land supports a phenomenal range of
biological diversity. These factors give rise to different climatic
regimes and soil structure, which in turn determine the
vegetation and faunal communities. The snake fauna best
represents this diversity.
There are no records on the snake fauna of the state
before the British visited northeast India. The impetus for
exploration came with the establishment of British power in
the Brahmaputra valley. Cantor ( 1 839) first worked on reptiles
in Burma (= Myanmar) and adjoining areas (including Bengal
and Assam); he identified Elaphe porphyracea, but referred
to it as Coluber porphyraceus -with a type locality of Mishmi
Hills and Abor country (Abor Hills) of present Arunachal
Pradesh. This work was followed by many authors, including
Wall ( 1 909- 1 9 1 0, 1 9 1 0) in Upper Assam including Abor, Mishmi
and Duffla (Dafla) hills and Namsang near the present Tirap
district of the State and Annandale ( 1 9 1 1 ) in Mishmi Hills and
(1912a, 1912b) in Abor Hills. After a long gap, another spate
of work followed: Smith (1943) which continues to be the
authoritative source for identification of Indian snakes, despite
being over half a century old, Romer ( 1 949); Waltner ( 1 975a,
1975b, 1975c, 1975d); Mathew ( 1983, 1995); Sanya! and Gayen
(1985); Ghosh ( 1987); Captain ( 1 997, 1 999); Captain and Bhatt
( 1 997, 2000, 200 1 ); Bhatt et al. ( 1 988); David et at. (200 1 ) and
Pawar and Birand (200 1 ).
Considering the great diversity of snakes in Arunachal
Pradesh, preparation of a comprehensive checklist was
thought to be important. The present work is the result of the
first author’s 10 years zoological exploration and endangered
wildlife mapping in the state, as well as from material examined
in various museums in the state with the second author, and
partly on published literature. The cut off date for literature
search and museum works was end of 2001. The interim
checklist (Captain and Bhatt 2000) of 57 species is largely
based on specimens from various museums in the State, out
of which 3 1 species are from the State Forest Research Institute
(SFRI) Museum, collected by the first author and his associates;
5 species from Zoological Survey of India, Itanagar, 8 species
from Miao Forest Museum collected from Namdapha National
Park; 1 species from Itanagar Zoo and 12 species based on Ashok
Captain’s ( 1 997, 1 999) observation. At present the SFRI Museum
harbours 39 species and 2 unidentified specimens.
Systematic List
The checklist is given as Table 1. The distribution and
status of each species with remarks are also cited. In the
remarks column, the reference and other details of the museum
specimens are given. The systematics and nomenclature,
including sequence of orders and families largely follow Smith
(1943). Das (1994, 1996, 1997) and Gupta and Rathanasabathy
(1997) were also consulted. The list covers 67 species
belonging to 5 families and 31 genera, and two unidentified
species.
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Table 1 : Systematic list of snakes in Arunachal Pradesh
SI No
Scientific Name
Distribution & Status
Remarks
Order: Squamata
Sub-order: Ophidia (Serpentes)
Family: Typhlopidae
(Worm Snakes or Blind Snakes)
1.
Ramphotyphlops braminus
Daudin 1803
Throughout the state in foothills and hills
up to 1 500 m. Very common.
2 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
2.
Typhlops jerdoni Boulenger 1890
Throughout the state.
Not common
Annandale (1912a);
Smith (1943), p 50
Note Typhlops diversiceps Annandale (1912a), Pasighat (originally recorded as Pashighat, Abor country).
In: Rec. Ind Musv iii. p. 44. pi. v, fig. 1. Smith (1943), p 50, synonymised under Typhlops jerdoni Boulenger 1890
3
Typhlops diardii Schlegel 1839
Throughout the state.
Plains to hills.
Very common.
7 ex. in SFRI Museum:
2 ex. Chessa, K Kaman;
2 ex. Itanagar, A Borang;
1 ex. Tippi, A N Rao,
1 ex. Itanagar, 1 Malla;
1 ex. Hangar, L Tamang
Family: Boidae
(Pythons and Boas)
4
Python molurus bivittatus
Kuhl 1820
Throughout the state.
Common
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Itanagar, A Borang;
1 ex. Itanagar, K Kaman
Family: Colubridae
(Colubrid Snakes)
Subfamily: Dipsadinae
5.
Pareas monticola Cantor 1839
Throughout the s(ate.
Common in montane forests.
1 ex. in ZSI, Itanagar:
Mukto, PT. Bhutia (2500 m)
Note: Annandale (1912a), Abor Hills and he found common in foothills. In Rec. Ind. Mus. vii, p
. 50
Subfamily: Colubrinae
6.
Elaphe praslna Blyth 1 854
Throughout the state Plains up to
2500 m. Common
1 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
Note: Annandale (1911), Mishmi Hills (Lohit and Dibang Valley districts). In Rec. Ind. Mus. vi, p. 218
7.
Elaphe frenata Gray 1853
Throughout the state.
Common
Captain & Bhatt (2000)
8
Elaphe radiata Schlegel 1837
Throughout the state.
Very Common.
3 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex Itanagar, K Kaman;
2 ex. Itanagar, A. Borang
9.
Elaphe taeniura Cope 1861
Throughout the state.
Common in hills
1 ex. in SFRI Museum:
Yachuli, B B Bhatt
10
Elaphe cantoris Boulener 1894
Throughout the state.
Common in hill forests.
Note: K. Haridasan has seen a dead specimen at Putin about 3-4 km away south of NEPCO's Ranganadi Dam site Photograph
was taken and is with the second author. Also Ashok Captain pers. comm 2002.
20
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan Apr 2005
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Table 1: Systematic list of snakes in Arunacha! Pradesh (contd.)
SI. No
Scientific Name
Distribution & Status
Remarks
11.
Elaphe porphyracea Cantor 1 839
Throughout the state.
Very common in wet forests
Foothills to hills.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Namdapha NP
(Deban), A Borang;
1 ex Chessa, K. Kaman
Note: The holotype was reported from Mishmi Hills and Abor country (Abor Hills). In: Cantor (1839), Proc loot Soc
London p 51
12.
Elaphe mandarina Cantor 1842
Throughout the state
Common in wet hill forests.
1 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
Note: Ablabes pavo Annandale (1912a). Rec. Ind Mus. viii p 47, pi v, fig 3, from Upper Rottung (Rottung village
in East Siang district), Abor country (Abor Hills). Smith (1943) pp. 157-158 clubbed with Elaphe mandarina Cantor
1842.
13.
Ptyas korros Schegel 1837
Throughout the state
Very common
7 ex. in SFRI Museum:
2 ex Itanagar, A Borang;
3 ex Chessa;
1 ex Itanagar, K Kaman,
1 ex Itanagar, A Captain
14.
Ptyas nigromarginata Blyth 1854
Throughout the state in the
hill forests up to 2500 m.
1 ex. in SFRI Museum
Talley Valley, B B Bhatt
Note: The first author has seen a dead snake run over by vehicle on the Pasighat-Pangin road about 5 km north of
Regging village at about 400 m. The specimen could not be collected due to technical problems Photograph was
taken
15.
Liopeltis frenata Gunther 1858
Throughout the state Hills
400-2000 m.
Annandale (1912a);
Captain & Bhatt (2000)
Note: Annandale (1912a), Mishmi Hills.
In Rec. Ind. Mus. viii, p 47.
16.
Liopeltis stoliczkae Sclater 1891
Throughout the state.
Nearby hills stream
Not common
1 ex in ZSI Itanagar
Ganga River (Itanagar),
PT Bhutia
17
Oligodon albocinctus Cantor 1 839
Throughout the state
Common. Plains to 2000 m.
3 ex. in SFRI Museum
2 ex. Chessa, K Kaman,
1 ex Gobuk, A Borang
Note: Wall (1909-1910), Sadia in and around Parbuk village In: J Bombay Nat Hist Soc Part II, xix, p 830.
18
Oligodon cinereus Gunther 1 864
Throughout the state.
Plains to hills. Common.
4 ex. in SFRI Museum:
2 ex. Chessa, K Kaman;
1 ex. Chessa;
1 ex Chimpu, A Borang
19.
Oligodon erythrorhachis Wall 1910
Foothills. Very Rare
1 ex. in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Chessa, A Borang
Note: Known from 2 specimens (Bhatt et at. 1998); Wall (1910) In: J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xix p. 923 and
Rec. Ind. Mus. xxv. 1923, p. 309 (Namsang, Jaipur district, now Tinsukia district, Assam) The specimen under
study was collected by the first author from a marshy nullah at Chessa, Papumpare district and is the first
documented record from Arunachal Pradesh and second in the world
20.
Dendrolaphis pictus Gmelin 1789
Throughout the state.
Plains to hills in busy forests.
Very common.
7 ex. in SFRI Museum:
2 ex. Chessa, A. Borang,
3 ex. Chessa, K. Kaman;
2 ex. Pangge, B B Bhatt
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
21
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Table 1
Systematic list of snakes in Arunachal Pradesh ( contd .)
SI. No
Scientific Name
Distribution & Status
Remarks
21
Dendrolaphis cyanochloris Wall 1921
Throughout the state
Plains to hills in bushy forests
Common.
1 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
Note: In Wall (1909-1910) Dendrolaphis proarchus (J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. Part II, xix, p.
around Parbuk village (Dibang Valley.)
827), Sadia in and
22.
Dendrolaphis gorei Wall 1910
Throughout the state
Plains to hills in bushy forests
Common
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Itanagar, J. Ali;
1 ex. Itanagar, D Saikia
23
Chrysopelea ornata Shaw 1802
Throughout the state
Plains to hills up to 2000 m
Very common in well wooded hill forests.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Damroh, A Borang;
1 ex Chessa, K Kaman
24
Lycodon taoensis Gunther 1864
Throughout the state.
Plains up to 1000 m
1 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
25.
Lycodon jara Shaw 1802
Throughout the state Foothills.
Not common.
2 ex in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Itangar, Donated by
R.K M Hospital;
1 ex. Itanagar, B B Bhatt
Interesting Note When disturbed the snake coiled into a ball-like shape and keeps motionless until it feels safe
26.
Lycodon fasciatus
Anderson 1879
Throughout the state.
Hill forests. 1000-2500 m.
1 ex. in SFRI Museum
Pangge, B B Bhatt.
27.
Sibynophis collaris Gray 1853
Throughout the state.
High hills and montane forests
Common in 1 000-1 500 m.
Captain & Bhatt (2000).
28
Amphiesma venningi Wall 1910
Tirap and Changlang districts.
High hills and montane forests.
Common in 1 000-1500 m.
Captain & Bhatt
(2000, 2001)
29
Amphiesma parallelum
Boulenger, 1890
Throughout the state High hills and
montane forests.
Common in 1500-2000 m.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Pangge, M M Borah;
1 ex Pangge, B B Bhatt.
30
Amphiesma khasiensis
Boulenger 1890
Throughout the state.
Not common.
Annandale (1912);
Captain & Bhatt (2000).
Note: Annandale (1912a), Upper Burma (Abor Country). In Rec. Ind. Mus. viii. pp 49 and 53.
31
Amphiesma modesta
Gunther 1875
Tirap district northwards Lohit district.
Hills forests between 500-2000 m
Uncommon
Ghosh (1987)
32.
Amphiesma stolatum
Linnaeus 1758
Throughout the state
Plains to hills up to 2500 m.
Very common.
6 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex Itanagar, A Borang;
3 ex Chessa, K Kaman;
2 ex Itanagar, A Yirang
33.
Amphiesma platyceps
Blyth 1854
Throughout the state. Plains
to hills up to 2500 m
Annandale (1912);
Pawar & Birand (2001 )
Note: Annandale (1912a), Abor Hills.
In Rec Ind Mus. viii, p 49.
22
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Table 1 Systematic list of snakes in Arunachal Pradesh ( contd .)
SI No
Scientific Name
Distribution & Status
Remarks
34
Xenochrophis punctulatus
Gunther 1958
Throughout the state Plains to hills.
Not common.
1 ex. in ZSI Museum:
Itanagar, PT. Bhutia
35
Xenochrophis piscator
Schneider 1799
Throughout the state Plains and
low altitude hills living in vicinity of
waterbodies Common.
5 ex. in SFRI Museum
2 ex. Itanagar, A. Borang;
3 ex. Chessa, K Kaman
36.
Xenochrophis sanctijohannis
Boulenger 1890
Throughout the state
Plains and hills up to 2000 m
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Shilluk, 1. Dai,
1 ex. Shilluk, A Borang
37.
Smonatrix percarinata
Boulenger 1899
Throughout the state Well
wooded wet hills preferably along
the water course.
1 ex. in Miao Museum.
38
Rhadophis himalayanus
Gunther 1864
Throughout the state
Foothills to hills up to 2000 m
Very Common.
9 ex. in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Pangin;
1 ex. Boleng, A Borang;
2 ex. Itanagar, K Kaman;
2 ex Itanagar, B B Bhatt,
2 ex. Chessa, Kancha Rai,
1 ex. Jumpa, K. Mitkong
Note Wall (1909-1910), In: J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc Part 1, xix, p 614), Sadia in and around Parbuk village (Lower
Dibang Valley) of Arunachal Pradesh
39.
Rhadophis submmiatus
Schlegel 1837
Throughout the state
Foothills to hills.
Very common.
8 ex. in SFRI Museum
2 ex. Itanagar;
1 ex. Bijari, A. Borang;
3 ex. Itanagar;
1 ex. Seijusa, K. Kaman;
1 ex. Tippi, A N Rao
40
Pseudoxenodon macrops
Blyth 1854
Throughout the state.
Plains to hills Common in
1 000-2500 m.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Chessa, A Borang;
1 ex. Gate, B B Bhatt
41
Trachischium monticola
Cantor 1839
Throughout the state
Plains and hills.
Very common in 1000-1500 m
1 ex SFRI Museum;
Chessa, K Kaman
42
Trachischium tenuiceps
Blyth 1854
North of R Subansiri westwards
Towang Hills and montane forest
montane forest up to 3000 m
Common.
2 ex. in ZSI Museum;
1 ex. Mukto (2500 m);
1 ex. Bomdir (2000 m);
PT Bhutia
43
Rhabdops bicolor Blyth 1 854
Throughout the state.
Common
1 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
Note: Wall (1925), In: J Bombay Nat Hist Soc. xxx. p 810 and Ibidxxx, 1926, p 516, Upper Assam (Mishmi Hills
and Khasi Hills).
44
Btythia reticulata Blyth 1 854
Throughout the state.
Foothills to hills. Common.
4 ex. in SFRI Museum
2 ex. Itanagar, A Borang,
2 ex. Chessa, K. Kaman
45
Boiga multimaculata
Reinwardt: Boie 1827
Throughout the state.
Foothills and hills.
Not common
1 ex. in Miao Forest Museum
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
23
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Table 1 Systematic list of snakes inArunachal Pradesh (contd.)
SI No.
Scientific Name
Distribution & Status
Remarks
46
Boiga ochracae walli Smith 1943
Throughout the state.
Foothills and hills. Rare.
1 ex in Miao Forest Museum
47.
Boiga gokool Gray 1834
Throughout the state.
Foothills to hills. Common.
3 ex. in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Seijusa, A. Borang;
2 ex. Itanagar, K. Kaman.
Note: Wall (1909-1910), In: J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc Part llxix. p. 831, Upper Assam (at Dejoo in and around Kimin,
Papumpare district of Arunachal Padesh.)
48
Boiga quincunciata Wall 1908
Throughout the state.
Foothills to hills.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Chessa, A Borang:
1 ex Itanagar, B B Bhatt
49.
Boiga cyanea Dumeril,
Bibron & Dumeril 1854
Throughout the state
Foothills to hills.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Chessa, A. Borang;
1 ex. Itanagar, A. Yirang
50.
Boiga ocellata Kroon 1973
Throughout the state.
Common.
4 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Itanagar, A. Yirang;
3 ex. Chessa, K. Kaman
51.
Psammodynastes pulverulentus
Boie 1827
Throughout the state
Plains and hills Common in well
wooded hills in wet areas.
2 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Gobuk, A. Borang;
1 ex. Chimpu, K. Kaman
Note: Wall (1909-1910), In: J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc Part II xix. p 833, Dejoo in and around Kimin, Papumpare
district (originally recorded as Upper Assam).
52
Ahaetulla prasina
Reinwardt: Boie 1827
Throughout the state
Plain to hills
Common in foothills
2 ex in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Itanagar, A Borang,
1 ex. Potin, B B Bhatt
Note: Wall (1909-1910), In: J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc Part II xix. p 834 Daffla Hills in and around Dullungmukh,
Lower Subansiri district, Dejoo in and around Kimin, Papumpare district and Sadia in and around Parbuk village,
Lower Dibang Valley district (originally recorded as Upper Assam) of Arunachal Pradesh
Subfamily: Homalopsinae
53.
Enhydris enhydris Schneider 1799
Throughout the state.
Very common in open streams.
None in SFRI Museum
but is the most common
Water Snake
Family: Elapidae
(Cobras, Kraits, Coral Snakes)
54.
Bungarus fasciatus
Schneider 1801
Throughout the state.
Common in Bamboo forests.
7 ex. in SFRI Museum:
4 ex. Chessa, K. Kaman;
1 ex. Chessa, M. Pawe;
2 ex. Chessa, Kancha Rai
Note: Wall (1909-1910), In: J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Part II xix p. 835.
Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh
Duffla Hills in and around Dullungmukh,
55.
Bungarus niger Wall 1 908
Throughout the state.
Not common.
2 ex. in ZSI, Itanagar;
2 ex. Itanagar, K Allia
56
Bungarus lividus Cantor
1839
Foothills of Kameng districts
adjoining Assam
Pawar & Birand (2001)
24
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Table 1
Systematic list of snakes in Arunachal Pradesh (contd )
SI No
Scientific Name
Distribution & Status
Remarks
57
Sinomicrurus macclellandii
Reinhardt 1844
Throughout the state
Common.
5 ex. in SFRI Museum
2 ex. Chessa, K. Kaman,
3 ex. Itanagar, A Borang
Note: Annaridale (1912a), In: Rec. Ind Musv in, p 50, Abor country (Abor Hills). Colour form 1 of Smith (1943) is most
common in Arunachal Pradesh
58
Naja kaouthia Lesson 1831
Throughout the state.
Common
3 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Chessa, A Borang,
2 ex. Itanagar, K. Kaman
59.
Ophiophagus hannah
Cantor 1836
Throughout the state
Common
3 ex. in SFRI Museum:
1 ex. Chessa, V.VK
Chessa Labour Party;
1 ex Itanagar, B B Bhatt;
1 ex. Itanagar, A Captain
Family: Viperidae
(True Vipers & Pit Vipers)
Subfamily: Crotalinae (Pit Vipers)
60
Protobothrops mucrosquamatus
Cantor 1839
Throughout the state.
In hills 1 000-3000 m
2 ex. in SFRI Museum
1 ex. Gate;
1 ex. Ziro, B B Bhatt
61
Protobothrops jerdoni
Gunther, 1875
Hills and Montane forests.
1 000-3000 m
Captain & Bhatt (2000)
62
Ovophis monticola Gunther 1864
Throughout the state In hills.
Common at 1 000-3000 m.
1 ex. in ZSI, Itanagar:
Mehao, T.K. Pal
63
Trimeresurus stejnegeri
Schmidt 1925
Throughout the state
Plains to moist montane bamboo forests.
1 ex. in Itanagar Zoo
Note: Absence of hemipenis, female. Scale formula, 21: 11 163: 58 Temporal scale are feebly keeled hence is
provisionally identified as Trimeresurus stejnegeri ( Trimeresurus stejnegeri yunnanensis ?) Schmidt 1925 (see
Das 1 996). The subspecies is now Trimerusurus stejnegeri Schmidt 1 925 and Trimerusurus yunnanensis Schmidt
1925 (see David et at. 2001).
64
Trimeresurus popeiorum Smith 1937
Throughout the state
Plains to moist montane
bamboo forests.
1 ex. in SFRI Museum:
Pangin, A. Borang
65
Trimeresurus erythrurus Cantor 1839 Tirap district northwards (with population
thinning down) to Changlang district
Note: It is very common in Naga Hills (Smith 1943) Personal contact with local people in Khonsa (Titap district)
during 1997 reveals occurrence of similar snake with tail mottled with red (brown) Also (Patrick David pers
comm , 2002).
66
Trimeresurus albolabris Gray 1842
Throughout the state.
Plains and low altitude hills
forests.
1 ex. in SFRI Museum:
Chessa, K Kaman
67.
Trimeresurus medoensis Djao:
Djao & Jiang 1977
Extreme eastern part of Changlang
district adjoining to Myanmar.
Wet montane forests above 1 500 m.
David et at. (2001);
Captain & Bhatt (2000).
Note: Reported from Gandhigram in Changlang district based on examination on 26 live specimens David et at
(2001). Its occurrence is restricted to the northeastern part of Arunachal Pradesh in India Probably occurs in
Kepang La, Karbo, Gelling and Singa areas in Upper Siang district New to the Indian fauna.
SFRI Museum: State Forest Research Institute Museum, ZSI: Zoological Survey of India, WK: Van Vigyan Kendra
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
25
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Specimens not identified
1. Trimeresurus sp. ( T. stejnegeri Schmidt 1925 or
T. popeioritm Smith 1939); Scale count - 21: 11: 167: 61;
dorsal scales moderately keeled; scale between supra-
ocular 13 narrow; 2 rows of scales between labials and
elongated sub-ocular. Collected by K. Haridasan from Chessa
(100 m).
2. Unidentified Keelback species: 2 pre-oculars;
3 post-oculars; 8L, 7R supralabials; 2+2 temporals; 1 large
loreal; scale in 17: 17: 15 rows keeled; 165 ventrals;
6 1 caudal paired; 2 anals. Collected about 1 0 km east of Pangge
at 2000 m on 1 4. vi. 1 994 by the first author. Could not be
identified from Smith (1943); perhaps not described from
India.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We are extremely grateful to S.R. Mehta, PCCF; K.
Nachoom, CCF (Wildlife); S.N. Kalita, CCF (REV); Dr. S.N.
Hegde, Director, State Forest Research Institute; R. Modi,
Field Director, Namdapha National Park; all the staff of
Department of Environment and Forests, Arunachal Pradesh,
for help and facilities during the field and museum work.
Numerous Gaon Burahs (Village Heads) and villagers rendered
the first author timely help during his survey. The
opportunities of sustained interaction with them were
extremely rewarding and we thank them for their time and
patience. We are also thankful to Ashok Captain for help in
identifying many specimens.
REFERENCES
Annandale, N. (1911): Contribution to the Fauna of Yunnan, based
on collection made by J. Coggin, B.Sc., 1909-1910. Part VI.
Batrachia and Reptiles. Rec. Ind. Mus. VI, pp. 215-218.
Annandale, N. (1912a): Zoological Result of Abor Expedition, 1911-
12: If Reptilia. Rec lnd. Mus. VIII: 37-55.
Annandale, N. (1912b): Zoological Result of Abor Expedition, 1911-
12: 11. Reptilia. Rec Ind. Mus. Supplement, Vlll, pp. 357-358.
Bhatt. B.B., A.S. Captain & A. Borang (1998): On the occurrence of
a rare snake in Arunachal Pradesh. The Indian Forester 124(2):
169-171.
Cantor, Th. (1839): Spicilegium Serpentium. Proc. Zool. Soc. London
Pp. 31-34. 49-55/ Col. Sketches and MS in Radcliffe Library,
Oxford.
Captain. A. (1997): A Catalogue of most of the Snakes preserved by
various Institutions in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
(Unpublished)
Captain, A. (1999): Recent Distributional Records of Snakes from
Arunachal Pradesh, India (1996-1999). (Unpublished)
Captain, A. & B.B. Bhatt (1997): Some snakes of the Itanagar area of
Papumpare district, Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal For. News
15 (1 & 2): 12-14.
Captain, A. & B.B. Bhatt (2000): An interim checklist of the snakes
of Arunachal Pradesh. The RFN El Newsletter 3: 10-13.
Captain, A. & B.B. Bhatt(2001): First records of Amphiesma venningi
(Wall, 1910) (Serpentes, Colubridae, Natricinae) from India,
with remarks on its subspecies. Hamadryad 26(2): 354-358.
Das, 1. (1994): The Reptiles of South Asia: Checklist and distributional
summary. Hamadryad 19: 15-40.
Das, 1. (1996): Biogeography of the Reptiles of South Asia. Krieger
Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. Pp. vii+86 pp., 36 pi.
Das, 1 (1997): Checklist of reptiles of India with English common
names. Hamadryad 22: 32-45.
David, P„ A. Captain & B.B. Bhatt (2001): On the occurrence of
Trimeresurus medoensis Djao. In: Djao & Jiang, 1977
(Serpentes, Viperidae, Crotalinae) in India, with a redescription
of this species and notes on its biology. Hamadryad 26(2):
210-226.
Ghosh, A. K. (1987): Qualitative analysis of faunal resources: proposed
Namdapha Biosphere Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh. Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 268.
Gupta, Brij & S. Rathanasabathy ( 1 997): Checklist of reptiles of India
with respect to the Wildlife Act, 1991, from a checklist compiled
by Indraneil Das, Harry Andrews. Zoos' Print 12(6): 21-30.
Mathew, R. (1983): On a collection of snakes from northeast India
(Reptilia: Serpentes). Rec. zool. Surv. India 80: 449-458.
Mathew, R. (1995): Reptilia. Pp. 379-454. In: Fauna of Meghalaya,
Part 1. State Fauna Series 4. Vertebrates (Ed Ghosh, A.K.).
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Pawar, Samraat & Aysegul Birand (2001 ): A Survey of Amphibians,
Reptiles and Birds in Northeast India. CERC Technical Report:
6. Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation, Mysore.
118 pp.
Romer, J.D. (1949): I lerpetological observation in Assam and Bengal
(1944). J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 48: 376-387.
Sanyal, D P. & N.C. Gayen (1985): Reptilia. Pp. 297-302. In: Fauna
of Namdapha: Proposed Biosphere Reserve. Rec. zool. Surv.
India 82(1-4). Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma
including the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-region. Reptilia
and Amphibia. Vol. III. Serpentes. Taylor & Francis, London xii
+ 583 pp.
Wall, F. (1909-1910): Notes on snakes collected in Upper Assam.
Part I, J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. xix: 608-623; Part II,
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xix: 825-845.
Wall, F. (1910): A new snake from Assam ( Oligodon erythrorachis).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xix: 923-924.
Waltner, R.G. (1975a): Geographical and Altitudinal distribution of
Amphibians and Reptiles in the Himalayas. Part I. Cheetal 16:
17-25.
Waltner, R.G. (1975b): Geographical and Altitudinal distribution of
Amphibians and Reptiles in the Himalayas. Part II. Cheetal 16:
28-36.
Waltner. R.G. (1975c): Geographical and Altitudinal distribution of
Amphibians and Reptiles in the Himalayas. Part III. Cheetal 16:
14-19.
Waltner, R.G. (1975d): Geographical and Altitudinal distribution of
Amphibians and Reptiles in the Himalayas. Part IV. Cheetal 16:
12-17.
26
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
27-32
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS AT THREE PROTECTED AREAS
OF KERALA1
M.I. Andrews2-4, Sanil George3 and Jaimon Joseph2
'Accepted June, 2003
department of Zoology, Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla 689 103, Kerala, India.
’Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Trivandrum 695 014, Kerala, India Email rhacophorus@rediffmail.com
"Email mipeandrews@yahoo.co in
The community structure of amphibian assemblages in three protected areas of Kerala - Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary,
Periyar Tiger Reserve and Agasthyavanam Biological Park - has been studied. Population census, diversity, evenness,
richness, ecological distribution, niche breadth and niche overlap of amphibians were determined. There was high
species diversity at all the sites. More than one female was available for each male of all the species. The amphibian
community was evenly distributed at each area. Niche breadth was high in Agasthyavanam Biological Park, followed by
Periyar Tiger Reserve and Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary. Niche overlap values indicate that the amphibian communities in
the three protected areas show great ecological similarity among sympatric species.
Key words: Amphibians, community structure, protected areas, Kerala
INTRODUCTION
Amphibians, particularly frogs and toads, in many
widely separated parts of the world appear to be declining
(Barinaga 1990; Wake 1991). The most predominant factor
responsible for the decline is anthropogenic activities, which
result in shrinkage of habitats where amphibians are found.
Several studies have been made on amphibian communities
in different ecosystems. Niche overlap and interspecific
competition in three species of Rana in Sarawak have been
reported by Inger and Greenberg (1966). Inger (1969) also
studied the organisation of communities of frogs in lowland
streams in Sarawak. Crump (1971) made a quantitative analysis
of ecological distribution of tropical herpetofauna. Densities
of floor dwelling frogs in lowland forests of southeast
Asia and Central America have been studied by Inger
(1980). Inger and Voris (1993) made a comparative study on
the Bornean amphibian communities. Resource utilisation
by the amphibian community in Borneo has been reported
by Das ( 1 996a). Similar studies are few in India (Inger et al.
1987; Dash and Mahanta 1993; Das 1996b; Vasudevan et al.
2001).
Recently, importance is being given to the
conservation of amphibians and to the study of
environmental resource utilisation by different species.
Kerala has a diverse amphibian fauna (Andrews and George
1998). However, there is little data on the amphibian
community’s function, which is important for conservation
(Inger et al. 1987; Dash and Mahanta 1993). The present
study was designed to analyse the community structure of
amphibians in three protected areas in the Kerala part of the
Western Ghats.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Studies on the community structure of amphibian
assemblages at Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary (moist deciduous
forest), Periyar Tiger Reserve (semi-evergreen forest) and
Agasthyavanam Biological Park (evergreen forest) have been
carried out from 2000-200 1 . Each study site was divided into
quadrats of dimensions 50 m x 50 m. The quadrats were
demarcated on the selected forest floor and searched
thoroughly in such a way that the escape of amphibians from
the area was impeded. At all sites, the search for amphibians
was done from one end to another of each quadrat at a stretch.
Logs were shifted and examined thoroughly, rocks overturned,
litter raked and the vegetation examined. Sampling in each
quadrat was done for 6 hours daily (0600 to 0900 hrs and
1700-2000 hrs) for two weeks each at Peppara Wildlife
Sanctuary (6 quadrats -3 riparian and 3 non-riparian), Periyar
Tiger Reserve (8 quadrats - 3 riparian and 5 non-riparian) and
Agasthyavanam Biological Park (3 quadrats -all non-riparian)
by two persons using collecting nets and large torches. Frogs/
toads captured were identified, measured and released as per
the standard methods for amphibians (Heyer et al. 1994).
Population census, diversity, evenness, richness, ecological
distribution, niche breadth and niche overlap of amphibians
at all the three sites were studied using the following formulae
(Krebs 1999).
1 . Simpson’s index of diversity:
/-/> = /-S(P.)2
/- D = Simpson’s index of diversity
P.= Proportion of individuals of species ‘i’ in the community
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS
2. Shannon-Weiner diversity:
//' = t(Pd (log 2 />,)
( = i
//'= Index of species diversity
s = Number of species
Pj = Proportion of total sample belonging to ith species
3. Brillouin’s diversity:
. M
H- yy l°8 yntl n2\
(t = Brillouin’s diversity
N = Total number of individuals in entire collection
n ! = Number of individuals belonging to species 1
«2! = Number of individuals belonging to species 2
n}\ = Number of individuals belonging to species 3
4. Smith and Wilson’s measure of evenness:
E = Smith and Wilson’s index of evenness
var
n. = Number of individuals in species / in species (/= 1,2,3-..)
n. = Number of individuals in species j in species (j= 1,2,3...)
S = Number of species in entire collection
5. Levins’s measure of niche breadth:
X",
B = Levin’s measure of niche breadth
N = Number of individuals found in or using resource state j
y = Total number of individuals sampled
6. Jackknife estimate of species richness:
S' = Jackknife’s estimate of species richness
s = Observed total number of species present in n quadrat
n = Total number of quadrat samples
k = Number of unique species
7. Horn’s index of niche overlap:
Z(P,j + P,a) log (Pv + Pik) - X Pj log P,j- X P,k log P,k
R° 2 log 2
R0= Horn’s index
Py = Proportion resource / is of the total resources utilized
by species j
P,*= Proportion resource i is of the total resources
utilized by species k
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 provides data on population density of
amphibians at three protected areas of Kerala. Of the 17
species of amphibians recorded, 12 species each were recorded
from Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary and Periyar Tiger Reserve,
while five species were collected from Agasthyavanam
Biological Park. Population density of Rana temporalis was
found to be high in all the three protected areas. At Peppara
Wildlife Sanctuary, Rana temporalis alone contributed 44%
to the total diversity. At Periyar Tiger Reserve and
Agasthyavanam Biological Park, R. temporalis constituted
40.7 and 4 1 .46% of the total diversity, respectively (Table 2).
Philautus pulcherrimus and Rhacophorus malabaricus were
found to be the rarest species in the present study. For all the
species, more than one female was available for each male.
The sex ratio was maximum in Rana temporalis and minimum
in Rhacophorus malabaricus (Table 3).
The analysis of dominance, diversity and evenness
indices provide valuable quantitative information in different
Table 1 Population density of amphibians at three protected
areas of Kerala
SI. No.
Species
Peppara
Wildlife
Sanctuary
Periyar Agasthyavanam
Tiger Biological Park
Reserve
1
Bufo melanostictus
1.5
1.5
0.7
2
Eu phi yet is
cyanophlyctis
0.5
0.9
3
E. hexadactylus
1.5
-
-
4
Limnonectes
keralensis
1.7
1.0
2.3
5
L limnocharis
0.5
2.5
-
6
L. nilagirica
-
0.6
-
7
Rana temporalis
9.2
7.6
4.0
8
Rana curtipes
-
0.4
-
9
Nyctibatrachus major 0 7
0.5
1.7
10
N. minor
0.7
-
-
11
Microhyla ornata
-
0.8
-
12
Micrixalus fuscus
-
0.5
1.0
13
Philautus variabilis
3.5
2.5
-
14
P. pulcherrimus
0.2
-
-
15
Polypedates
pseudocruciger
0.8
0.3
"
16
Rhacophorus
malabaricus
0.2
28
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS
Table 2 Percentage occurrence of amphibians at three protected
areas of Kerala
SI No
Species
Peppara
Wildlife
Sanctuary
Periyar Agasthyavanam
Tiger Biological Park
Reserve
1
Bufo melanostictus
7.2
8.0
6.9
2
Euphlyctis
cyanophlyctis
2.4
4.7
3
E. hexadactylus
7.2
-
-
4
Limnonectes
keralensis
8.0
5.3
24.1
5
L limnocharis
2.4
13.3
-
6
L. nilagirica
-
3.3
-
7
Rana temporalis
44.0
40.7
41.46
8
Rana curtipes
-
2.0
-
9
Nyctibatrachus major 3.2
2.7
17.24
10
N. minor
3.2
-
-
11
Microhyla ornata
-
4.0
-
12
Micrixalus fuscus
-
2.7
10.3
13
Philautus variabilis
16.8
12.0
-
14
P pulcherrimus
0.8
-
-
15
Polypedates
pseudocruciger
4.0
1.3
-
16
Rhacophorus
malabaricus
0.8
Table 3 Male-Female ratio of amphibians at three protected
areas of Kerala
SI No.
Species
Peppara
Wildlife
Sanctuary
Periyar Agasthyavanam
Tiger Biological Park
Reserve
1
Bufo melanostictus
2.33
1.84
2.11
2
Euphlyctis
cyanophlyctis
1.93
1.72
-
3
E. hexadactylus
2.14
-
-
4
Limnonectes
keralensis
2.57
1.78
2.25
5
L limnocharis
2.36
3.22
-
6
L. nilagirica
-
0.16
-
7
Rana temporalis
4.89
5.22
4.92
8
Rana curtipes
-
1.89
-
9
Nyctibatrachus major 109
1.39
1.27
10
N. minor
1.18
-
-
11
Microhyla ornata
-
0 52
-
12
Micrixalus fuscus
-
1.29
1.39
13
Philautus variabilis
2.27
2.12
-
14
P. pulcherrimus
0.49
-
-
15
Polypedates
pseudocruciger
2.13
1.89
16
Rhacophorus
malabaricus
0.05
'
habitats. For the analysis of dominance, three indices were
used in the present study. Simpson’s diversity index was
found to be 0.763 (Peppara) 0.792 (Periyar) and 0.751
(Agasthyavanam), which indicates a high species diversity
in all the protected areas. Shannon-Wiener’s diversity does
not seem to exceed 5.0 for most of the biological communities.
In the present study also, the values are within the limits and
show high diversity. Brillouin’s index is used when the
sampling is done without replacement. It is practically identical
to Shannon-Wiener index. In the present study too, diversity
was found to be high (Table 4). At Peppara, Rana temporalis
and Philautus variabilis contributed 60.8% of the total
diversity index value. At Periyar, Rana temporalis ,
Limnonectes limnocharis and Philautus variabilis
constituted 66% of the index value while at Agasthyavanam,
Rana temporalis , Limnonectes keralensis and
Nyctibatrachus major contributed 82.8% of the index value
(Table 2).
The distribution of amphibians in the three protected
areas was found to be even (Table 4). Amphibian community
at Agasthyavanam Biological Park was most evenly
distributed, followed by Periyar Tiger Reserve and Peppara
Wildlife Sanctuary. Estimated species richness of the
1 2 species reported from Peppara was 1 6.2 with a confidence
limit of 7.8 to 24.6. Five species were found to be unique in the
area. At Periyar Tiger Reserve, estimated species richness
was 16.4 with five unique species. At Agasthyavanam
Biological Park, the estimated species richness was 6.3 with
Table 4 Estimation of species diversity, evenness, richness and
niche breadth of amphibian populations
at three protected areas of Kerala
Parameters
Peppara
Wildlife
Sanctuary
Periyar
Tiger
Reserve
Agasthyavanam
Biological Park
Species Diversity
Simpson's Diversity (l-D)
0.763
0 792
0 751
Shannon-Wiener’s
Diversity (H')
2 665
2.830
2.064
Brillouin’s Diversity (H)
2 445
2.637
1 765
Evenness measure
Smith and Wilson’s
Evenness measure
0 436
0 560
0 761
Species richness
Estimated species 16.2
Richess (Jackknife
Method)
+ 3.27 16.4 + 2 63
6 3 + 1.33
No of unique species
5
5
2
Niche breadth
Levin’s standardised
niche breadth
0.535
0.565
0.740
No. of frequently
used resources
5/8
4/5
5/6
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
29
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS
two unique species. The ecological distribution and the
relative abundance of each species were studied at all sites.
The resource states based on microhabitat preference were
divided into eight subgroups at Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary
such as in water, on bare soil, dead leaves, rocks, logs, herbs,
shrubs and trees. The distribution of amphibians within the
six quadrats was found as 38 individuals/6 species in water,
20/6 on bare soil, 7/3 on dead leaves, 1/1 on rocks, 2/1 on
logs, 28/2 on herbs, 23/3 on shrubs and 5/3 on trees. At Periyar
Tiger Reserve, the microhabitats were divided into five
subgroups, namely in water, on grass, bare soil, dead leaves
and rocks. The amphibians within the 8 quadrats were
distributed as 19 individuals/4 species in water, 66/7 on grass,
27/6 on bare soil, 32/4 on dead leaves and 5/2 on rocks. At
Agasthyavanam Biological Park, the microhabitats were
divided into six subgroups such as in water, on bare soil,
shrubs, sand and rocks. The distribution of amphibians within
the 3 quadrats was found as 5 individuals/2 species in water,
3/1 on grass, 5/3 on bare soil, 3/3 on rocks, 1/1 on sand and 4/
1 on shrubs.
Niche breadth measurement is used to find out how
organisms utilise their environment. It was measured by
observing the distribution of individuals within a set
microhabitats. Table 4 gives the Levin’s standardised niche
breadth scores for the amphibian communities at three
protected areas. Niche breadth score was found to be high in
Agasthyavanam Biological Park, followed by Periyar Tiger
Reserve and Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary. It indicates that
habitat generalists were abundant in Agasthyavanam and
Periyar since the frequently used microhabitats by amphibians
were five out of six and four out of five respectively. At
Peppara, frequently used microhabitats were five out of eight,
indicating the presence of habitat specialists.
Niche overlap (Horn’s index) is a measure of the
association of two or more species. The minimum and maximum
niche overlap values are 0 and 1 respectively. A value of zero
indicates no overlap and 1 indicates 1 00% overlap (Inger and
Colwell 1977). In the present study, Euphlyctis hexadactylus
/ Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis and Rhacophorus malabaricus /
Philautus pulcherrimus showed 100% overlap value at
Peppara which indicates that they are found together more
often than other species in the area (Table 5a). At Peppara,
among the 12 species recorded, Rana temporalis was found
sharing the microhabitat with nine other species, with varying
degrees of overlap. This was followed by Limnonectes
keralensis and Nyctibatrachus minor with 8 species.
Philautus pulcherrimus , Polypedates pseudocruciger and
Rhacophorus malabaricus were found to be the least
associated, their association for the microhabitat being limited
to two species.
At Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Rana curtipes /
Limnonectes limnocharis and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis /
Nyctibatrachus major were found to be more associated (Table
5b). Here Rana temporalis was found to share the microhabitat
with all the other species, with varying degrees of overlap
followed by Limnonectes nilagirica, Microhyla ornata and
Bufo melanostictus with eight species. Micrixalus fuscus was
the least associated species, its association for the
microhabitat being limited to one species.
At Agasthyavanam Biological Park, 100% overlap was
not found between any of the five species recorded. However,
the maximum overlap was found between Limnonectes
Table 5a: Niche overlap of amphibians at Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary (Horn's index)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
1.000
0.000
0 000
0.878
0.925
0.000
0.612
0.000
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.146
2
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.242
0 000
0 862
0.689
0.000
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.581
3
0.000
1.000
1 000
0.242
0.000
0 862
0 689
0.000
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.581
4
0.878
0 242
0.242
1 000
0 948
0.222
0.629
0.000
0.000
0 000
0.000
0.240
5
0 925
0 000
0.000
0.948
1.000
0 000
0.000
0.451
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.065
6
0.000
0 862
0.862
0.222
0.000
1.000
0.607
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.517
7
0.612
0.689
0.689
0.629
0.451
0.607
1.000
0 000
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.517
8
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0 000
1.000
0.311
0.378
0.311
0 621
9
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.311
1.000
0 000
1.000
0 000
10
0 000
0.000
0 000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0 000
0.378
0.000
1 000
0.000
0.451
11
0 000
0 000
0 000
0.000
0 000
0 000
0 000
0 311
1.000
0 000
1 000
0.000
12
0.146
0.581
0 581
0.240
0 065
0 517
0.580
0 621
0 000
0 451
0.000
1 000
1.
6
11
Bufo melanostictus , 2 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, 3. E hexadactylus, 4 Limnonectes keralensis, 5. L limnocharis,
Nyctibatrachus major, 7. N. minor, 8. Philautus variabilis, 9. P pulcherrimus, 10 Polypedates pseudocruciger,
Rhacophorus malabaricus, 12. Rana temporalis
30
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS
Table 5b: Niche overlap of amphibians at Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Horn's index)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
1.000
0.572
0.418
0.904
0.572
0.847
0.693
0.205
0.311
0.768
0.205
0.059
2
0.572
1.000
0.000
0.764
1.000
0.809
0.809
0.000
0 000
0 541
0.000
0.000
3
0 418
0.000
1.000
0.338
0.000
0.000
0.459
0.541
0.809
0.623
0.541
0.000
4
0.904
0.764
0.338
1.000
0.764
0.887
0.887
0.000
0.390
0.884
0.000
0.000
5
0.572
1.000
0.000
0.764
1.000
0.809
0.809
0 000
0.000
0.541
0.000
0.000
6
0.847
0.809
0.000
0.887
0.809
1.000
0 667
0.000
0.000
0 610
0.000
0 000
7
0.693
0.809
0.459
0.887
0.809
0 667
1.000
0.000
0.541
0.893
0.000
0 000
8
0.205
0.000
0.541
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.000
0.000
1 000
0 000
9
0.311
0.000
0.809
0.390
0.000
0.000
0.541
0.000
1.000
0.752
0.000
0.000
10
0.768
0.541
0 623
0.884
0.541
0.610
0.893
0.000
0 752
1.000
0.000
0.000
11
0.205
0.000
0.541
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.000
12
0.059
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0 000
0.000
0 000
0.000
1.000
1. Rana temporalis, 2. R. curtipes, 3. Limnonectes keralensis, 4. L. nllagirica, 5. L. iimnocharis, 6. Philautus variabilis,
7. Microhyla ornata , 8. Euphlyctis cyanophtyctis, 9. Polypedates pseudocruciger, 10. Bufo melanostictus, 11. Nyctibatrachus major,
12 Micrixalus fuscus
Table 5c: Niche overlap of amphibians at
Agasthyavanam Biological Park (Horn’s index)
1
2
3
4
5
1
1.000
0 413
0.212
0.255
0.000
2
0.413
1.000
0.925
0.168
0.000
3
0.212
0.925
1.000
0.000
0.000
4
0.255
0.168
0.000
1.000
0 764
5
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.764
1.000
1. Rana temporalis, 2 Limnonectes keralensis,
3. Bufo melanostictus, 4. Nyctibatrachus major,
5 Micrixalus fuscus
keralensis and Bufo melanostictus (Table 5c). Here, Rana
temporalis, Limnonectes keralensis and Nyctibatrachus
major were found to share the microhabitat with three other
species, followed by Bufo melanostictus with two species
and Micrixalus fuscus with one species.
CONCLUSION
It was evident from the present study that the amphibian
communities in the three protected areas of Kerala show
greater ecological similarity (greater niche overlap) among
co-existing species. Such similarities are already established
for amphibian communities from tropical rain forests (Inger
and Colwell 1977). It is assumed that if overlap should be
greater, more species share a given variety of resources, in
the absence of compensating differences in niche breadth.
Resource use by ecologically more similar pairs of species is
more likely to be subject to evolutionary adjustments through
the combined effects of competition and environmental
fluctuations (Inger and Colwell 1977). However, no such
conclusion is possible in the absence of earlier studies in this
region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, for providing financial assistance to
carry out this work as part of a major research project (No. 3 1 /
1 1/98-NE) awarded to M.I.A. and S.G. The permission granted
by the Chief Wildlife Warden of Kerala to conduct the study
in all sanctuaries and other protected areas and the help
rendered by the concerned Wildlife Wardens in our field
studies are gratefully acknowledged. J.J. thanks the Ministry
for the fellowship.
REFERENCES
Andrews, M.I. & S. George (1988): Amphibian resources of Kerala.
Cobra 33: 41-48.
Barinaga, M. (1990): Where have all froggies gone. Science 247:
1033-1034.
Crump, M.L. (1971): Quantitative analysis of the ecological distribution
of a tropical herpetofauna. Museum Nat. Hist. Unix Kansas
Publ 3: 31-62.
Das, 1. (1996a): Spatio-temporal resource utilization by a Bornean
rain forest herpeto anura: preliminary results. Pp. 315-323. In:
Tropical Rainforests Research Current Issues (Eds: Edwards,
D.S., W.E. Booth and S.C. Choy), Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht. Pp 315-323.
Das, I. (1996b): Resource use and foraging tactics in a south Indian
anuran community. J. South Asian not. Hist. 2(1): 1-30.
Dash, M.C. & J.K. Mahanta (1993): Quantitative analysis of the
community structure of tropical amphibian assemblages and its
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COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS
significance to conservation. J. Biosci. 18(1): 121-139.
Heyer, W.R., M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.C. Hayek & M.S.
Fister (1994): Measuring and monitoring biological diversity -
methods for amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington D C., pp. 690.
Inger, R.F. (1969): Organization of communities of frogs along
small rain forest streams in Sarawak. J. Anim. Ecol. 38: 1 23-
148.
Inger, R.F. (1980): Densities of floor dwelling frogs and lizards in
lowland forests in southeast Asia and central America. Amer
Nat. 115: 761-770.
Inger, R.F. & R.K. Colwell (1977): Organization of contiguous
communities of amphibians and reptiles in Thailand. Ecol.
Monogr. 47: 229-253.
Inger, R.F. & B. Greenberg (1966): Ecological and competitive
relations among three species of frogs (Genus Rana). Ecol. 47:
746-759.
Inger, R.F., H.B. Shaffer, M. Koshy & R. Bakde (1987): Ecological
structure of a herpetological assemblage in South India.
Amphibia Reptilia 8: 189-202.
Inger, R.F. & H.K. Voris (1993): A comparison of amphibian
communities through time and from place to place in Bornean
forests. J. Trop. Ecol. 9: 409-433.
Krebs, C..I. (1999): Ecological methodology. Addison-Wesley
Educational Publishers, Inc. Pp. 410-475.
Vasudevan, K., A. Kumar & R. Chellam (2001): Structure and
composition of rain forest floor amphibian communities in
Kalakad-Mundathurai Tiger Reserve. Curr. Sci. 80(3): 406-4 1 2.
Wake, D.B. (1991): Declining amphibian populations. Science 253:
860.
32
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
33-37
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL PAPILIO LIOMEDON MOORE'
C. SUSANTH2
'Accepted August, 2003
2Prakriti, Indira Nagar, Peroorkada PO., Thiruvananthapuram 695 005, Kerala, India
Email: csusanth@hotmail.com
The biology of the Malabar Banded Swallowtail Papilio liomedon Moore on a new larval food plant was recorded and
the larval food plant investigated. The life cycle, brood size, larval instar duration, pupae and sex ratio were observed.
Keywords: Life cycle, new host plant, Malabar Banded Swallowtail, Papilio liomedon Moore, endemic butterfly,
Western Ghats
INTRODUCTION
The Malabar Banded Swallowtail Papilio liomedon
Moore, a large, brownish-black butterfly, with a prominent
cream yellow band on its wing, is among the rarest of papilionid
butterflies of southern India. It is endemic to the Western
Ghats and an inhabitant of semi-evergreen and evergreen
forests. It normally flies high in the dense forest, but is
attracted to clearings and roadsides, where its adult-food
plants, Clerodendron paniculatum, C. infortunatum and
Stachytrapheta indica grow. It is not unusual to find specimens
flying even in heavy rain. Over forest paths, particularly during
monsoon, this powerful flier is seen flying fast with rapid
wing beats. It is easier to approach while mud puddling.
Achronychia laurifolia Blume (Family Rutaceae) is the
recorded larval food plant of the Malabar Banded Swallowtail.
Achronychia laurifolia is not a widely distributed species
and is seen in semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. The
new food plant reported in this paper, Indian Aspen Evodia
roxburghiana also belongs to Family Rutaceae. This tree
occurs in deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests
all over India. Evodia roxburghiana is also seen at an
elevation of 1,886 m in the Agasthyakoodam peak, Neyyar
Wildlife Sanctuary, Thiruvananthapuram.
STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in the Arippa
Ammayambalam pacha, lying within 77° 1 ' 45" - 77° 2' 50" E
and 8° 49' - 8° 35' N, lowland evergreen forests of the Western
Ghats, in Kulathupuzha reserve forests, 52 km from
Thiruvananthapuram.
Observations on the biology of the Malabar Banded
Swallowtail Papilio liomedon Moore have been made since
1996 under semi natural conditions. Eggs collected from the
tender shoots of Evodia roxburghiana were transferred to
cylindrical glass jars, 22 cm tall and 1 0 cm wide, with a capacity
of 2 litres, partially immersed in a tray of water kept in a cool
place. Number of eggs/brood, hatching period, duration of
larval instars, mode of larval feeding, pupation and
metamorphosis were noted. Sex ratio after emergence, natural
predators, number of unhatched eggs, number of diseased
larvae, and other factors were noted. Number of eggs/brood,
hatching rate, pupation rate, and metamorphosis rate were
also observed under natural conditions. Using this data, the
life cycle (Table 1 ) of the Malabar Banded Swallowtail Papilio
liomedon Moore was worked out.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Egg
The female lays about 1 6 eggs one over the other like a
stick on tender shoots of Evodia roxburghiana (Fig. 1 A). No
visible change was observed in the eggs for three days. The
orange eggs gradually faded to yellow. Pale black markings
appeared on the upper side of the egg shell on the fourth day.
On closer observation through a magnifying glass, the black
spots were identified as the heads of the larvae.
Is1 Instar
On the fifth day, the larvae emerged from the eggs. The
outermost egg hatched first and the egg nearest the tender
shoot hatched last. After eating the eggshells, the larvae
congregated at the bottom of the leaf. The newly hatched 3
mm long larva was orange with a black head. The body was
covered with tiny hairs. On the second day after emergence,
the larvae began to feed on tender leaves. They ate the edges
of the leaves and made small circles on tender leaves. Each
grew to about 6 mm. The hair covering the body disappeared
by the third day. The larvae now produced tiny silken threads
by which they hung on leaves. The larvae congregated on
the upperside of the leaves. Each one grew 7 mm long. On the
fifth day the larvae seemed less active. When alarmed due to
any movement in the leaves, the larvae raised their heads and
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL
Fig. 1 : Malabar Banded Swallowtail Papilio liomedon, A. Egg chain on Evodia roxburghiana ; B. Larval congregation-lnstar II; C. Larval
congregation-lnstar IV; D. Green and Blue colouration of IVth Instar Larvae; E. Pupa in Green colour;
F. Female Butterfly (dorsal)
moved sideways, and were able to produce a faint knocking
sound by wriggling movements of body.
2nd Instar
The larvae began to shed their old skin. The outer black
covering of the head was also shed. The head was now pale
orange, and the larvae 9 mm long. On the seventh day, the
larvae became dark orange. After voracious feeding they
congregated at the middle of the upper leaf surface (Fig. IB).
Four pairs of prominent spines were seen on segment 2, 7, 12
and 13. On the eighth day, the larvae were 14 mm long.
3rd Instar
The second moulting occurred on the ninth day. Larvae
congregated over the leaf surface. They ate voraciously.
When alarmed, the larva exserted its pale yellow osmeterium,
giving a pungent smell.
On 11th day, the activities of the larvae became
sluggish; they rested through most of the day on the
underside of the leaves. A cream border was observed on the
34
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Table 1: Life cycle of Malabar Banded Swallowtail Papilio liomedon Moore
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL
E
0
cn
0 0
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CD 0
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LU
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ll
CD
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O Q
03
cn
uT ~o
3 O
03 2
Z JD
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LO
h-
00
CD
00
I I I I
£
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c n
cr-
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“ 0
CO (/)
C hr
0 O
03 CD 03
2 £
I *
S. i
co •'t
TJ ^
w u jj>
O *0 P
Z < E
CD
0 0)
LU c3
Ll.
CNJ
CD CO
_ ~o
O 3
■D
03
O CO
■D
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-o
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X - Q.
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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
35
Adult — — — 30-40 days — — — — — — Male butterfly is more aggressive than the
(variable) female butterfly
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL
lower side of the body. The larvae were 22 mm long.
4,h Instar
The third moulting occurred on the 1 3 th day. The colour
faded gradually till it became semi- translucent, pale orange
blended with olive green (Fig. 1C, 1 D). The cream border was
more predominant on lower side of the body. The pair of
spines on segment 12 disappeared. The tubercle on segment
7 was predominant. Most of the time the larvae rested on the
leaves or branches of the food plant. The larvae were 30 mm
long.
5"' Instar
The fifth instar emerged on the 1 7th day. The colour of
the larvae changed completely; it was now overall dark
velvety green. The head was yellowish-orange with a red
osmeterium. The body had golden yellow sides and golden
crests on segments 4 and 5. It was swollen at segments 3 and
4, with lateral black eye spots. A black band was seen just
behind the crest on segment 5. The 3 pairs of spines on
segment 2, 7 and 13 were golden yellow. A yellow and reddish-
brown blotched broad band was observed on segments 7
and 8. The bands on 7 and 8 together formed a ‘V’ on the
dorsum of the larva. A reddish-brown blotched band was
also observed on segments 9 and 10 (posterior segments).
The larvae were now 38 mm long. They fed on old leaves and
seemed to avoid tender leaves.
By the 19th day, they were 45 mm long. The larvae
were a glistening velvet green, which appeared smoky blue
when observed in direct sunlight. The larvae were less active
and aggregated on the underside of leaves for their final
moulting.
6"‘ Snstar
The fifth moulting occurred on the 20th day. The larvae
were 50 mm long. After moulting, the larvae ate voraciously.
They began to bite the leaves into small pieces and ate them.
The small pieces of leaves were suspended on the thread
produced by the larvae. They showed their brilliant red
osmeterium when alerted. A pungent smell was also produced.
They were also seen feeding at night. The larvae rested on
self woven threads as on a bed at night. The larvae continued
to feed till the 22nd day. They were 56 mm long before
pupation.
Pupation
The lower portion of the pupal case was yellow or
fluorescent green with purple lines. Between the head and
thorax region, a projection similar to the handle of a jug was
observed. This projection, which is about 6 mm long, is the
distinguishing feature of the chrysalis of Papilio liomedon
Moore. Just below the thoracic region, two yellow eye marks
were apparent. Two black spots on the yellow rings resembled
the eyes. Two black spots were also seen at the end of
abdomen. The pupa was 30 mm long and 14 mm thick at the
middle portion. The pupation period extended for 15 days
(Fig. IE).
Emergence of adult butterfly
On the morning of the 1 5* day of the pupal period, the
pupal case became transparent. The creamy spots of the
forewing were also visible. The butterflies emerged in the
late morning and afternoon. The wingspan of the male
butterfly was 90-100 mm. The male was dark brownish-black
with a greenish, glistening creamy yellow band. On each
hindwing near the tomal angle, there was a black spot partially
encircled by a pale orange ring. Towards the base, a small
spot of glistening violet was observed in each wing. The
wingspan of the female was 100-1 10 mm. The female was dull
brownish-black with a pale creamy yellow band. Bright orange
colour at the tornal angle is the diagnostic feature of the
female (Fig. IF). The male butterfly was more aggressive
than the female. In 20 minutes, the fluid had dried, the wings
stretched to full span, and the butterfly actively fanned its
wings, ready for flight.
Wynter Blyth (1957) has stated, “There seem to be two
or three broods in the year, and in breeding the males largely
outnumbered the females.” But according to my
observations, the females outnumber males in three out of
four broods (Table 1 ). Taibot ( 1 939) reported that the female
lays ten eggs on tender leaves of Acronychia laurifolia
Blume. On October 7, 1998, I observed a female laying
16 eggs on a tender shoot of Evodia roxburghiana , which
has not been recorded earlier as a host plant of this
butterfly.
In natural surroundings, the survival rate of Papilio
Homedon Moore is less than 10% (Table 1). In simulated
natural conditions in the lab, the survival rate is 70%. In
natural surroundings snails were important predators, which
ate most of the eggs laid by the female. Snails roam through
the host plants in search of eggs and early instar larvae.
During monsoon, the undergrowth of evergreen forests is
heavily infested with snails. Other predators including
spiders, praying mantis, black ants and parasitic wasps have
also been observed. Degradation of evergreen forests
through extensive human interference in recent years is
another challenge to the existence of the species. The cutting
and clearing of undergrowth, especially the food plants of
this rare papil ionid, causes depletion of its population in
evergreen forests.
36
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Prof. N. Ravi, former Professor of
Botany, SreeNarayana College, Kollam (Kerala), and Dr. K.N.
Subramanian, Director (Retd) ICRE, Coimbatore for
identifying and confirming the plant species. I am thankful
to Mr. K. Rafeek, Mr. K.A. Kishore and Mr. K.V. Eldhose who
extended field support and encouragement. 1 am grateful to
Mr. M. Ramesh for field support and for sparing his camera
for taking unforgettable and unusual moments of the life
cycle of this rare papilionid. 1 express my gratitude to Mr. R.
Murukesh for computer assistance. The logistic support
provided by my elder brother Mr. C. Susheel Kumar and my
family is gratefully acknowledged. I am deeply indebted to
all members of Warblers and Waders, a group of bird watchers
and nature lovers, Thiruvananthapuram, for their valuable
suggestions. 1 express my sincere gratitude to Mr.
Krushnamegh Kunte, author of butterflies of peninsular
india for scientific and technical modifications in the
manuscript. Thanks to Dr. D.R. Priyadarsanan, ATREE,
Bangalore and Mrs. Maya Mathew, Selection Grade Lecturer,
Department ofZoology, University of Kerala, Kariyavattom
Campus, Thiruvananthapuram for critical examination of the
manuscript.
REFERENCES
Talbot, G (1939): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and
Burma, Butterflies Vol. 1. London, Taylor and Francis Ltd
Wynter Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay
Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 523.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
37
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
38-43
PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS: AN EVALUATION OF THEIR EFFICIENCY,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FIELD CRICKETS (GRYLLIDAE: ORTHOPTERA)1
B.U. Divya2, Sapna Metrani2 and Rohini Balakrishnan2' 3
'Accepted September, 2003
2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
’Email: rohini@ces iisc.ernet in
Pitfall trapping, a commonly used technique for sampling arthropods in the field, often involves the use of either
poisonous or non-biodegradable chemicals. We explored the possibility of using a non-poisonous, degradable alternative,
and edible oil in pitfall traps designed to sample arthropods. Our results showed that a film of edible oil over water is an
effective substitute for detergent solution for the capture of insect groups such as crickets, grasshoppers, ants, cockroaches
and flies. Only in the case of spiders was detergent found to be significantly more effective than oil. For crickets, we
further showed that live trapping without the use of chemicals was a viable alternative to traps with chemicals. Pitfall
trapping was, however, inadequate as a method to quantify relative abundance and habitat associations of crickets at the
species level.
Key words: Orthoptera, Gryllidae, crickets, grasshoppers, pitfall traps, arthropods, insects, sampling
Pitfall trapping is a widely used technique for sampling
surface arthropods such as ants, beetles, cockroaches,
spiders and crickets (Southwood 1978). It is simple and
inexpensive. Aplastic or glass jar with steep sides is placed in
a pit dug into the ground, so that the rim of the jar is level with
the soil surface. In order to prevent trapped animals from
escaping, such traps usually contain an aqueous solution of
a chemical such as picric acid, iso-propanol, tri-sodium
orthophosphate or a detergent. Traps designed to
simultaneously kill and preserve arthropods may contain
either formalin or ethylene glycol (Southwood 1978).
The efficiency of a pitfall trap increases with its
circumference, and relatively large arthropods require larger
traps to be efficiently captured (Luff 1975; Brennan et al.
1999). This in turn means increased volume of the chemical
per trap. This poses a problem when sampling in remote
forested areas or difficult terrain, since these chemical-filled
traps must be transported out of the area after sampling: it
would be undesirable to simply remove the trapped insects
and empty the toxic contents of the trap into the soil. In the
first experiment, we explored the possibility of using a non-
poisonous, biodegradable substitute such as edible oil instead
of detergents or poisonous chemicals in pitfall traps.
In the second experiment, we captured animals live in
traps that contained no chemicals or solutions, but were
designed to prevent the insects from escaping. Live trapping
offers two major advantages over conventional pitfall
trapping: the researcher may choose between different
methods of killing or preservation. For example, insects
collected for molecular studies need to be preserved in 90-
95% ethanol, whereas those collected for morphological
studies could be killed in cyanide jars and then preserved
dry. Live trapping also permits behavioural or mark and
recapture studies, and prevents the unnecessary killing of
non-target groups including other invertebrates and small
vertebrates that fall into the traps. These can be released into
the habitat if the traps are frequently monitored.
We evaluated the efficiency of the above traps in
capturing surface-dwelling field cricket and ground cricket
species, and attempted to examine microhabitat associations
and seasonal variations in the relative abundance of cricket
species, using this technique.
METHODS
Experiment 1: To compare the trapping efficiency of
pitfall traps containing plain water (W), water with a film of oil
(O) and water with detergent (D), five sets (blocks) of three
traps (each representing one treatment) were laid out in five
different microhabitats (tall grass, short grass, mixed grass +
forbs, forbs alone, and leaf litter). The experiment was designed
to eliminate the possible effect of microhabitat in biasing
capture rates and probabilities (Melbourne 1999). The three
traps within a block were placed at a distance of2 m from each
other. Each trap consisted of a plastic bowl (21 cm diameter,
7 cm depth) sunk into the ground with the rim at surface level
(Fig. la). The bowl was filled to about two-thirds of its volume
with either plain water (as the control), or water with one ml of
oil poured on the surface, or a 2% detergent solution. In this
experiment, traps with plain water were used as controls, rather
than empty traps, since the relatively small depth of the traps
made it very easy for arthropods to crawl or fly out of empty
traps. The traps were left open for 1 5 days and nights, over a
period of three months from April-June 2000. All traps were
EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY OF PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS
< 2 I CM > 4 2lCM y
Fig 1: Schematic illustration of the pitfall traps used in the study; a Design of the traps used in the first experiment,
b Design of the trap type used in the second experiment
monitored at the end of a 24-hour period of sampling and the
number of trapped individuals of different arthropod groups
(both nymphs and adults) above one mm in length were
counted and then air-dried for preservation.
Experiment 2: ‘Live traps’ were set up in different
microhabitats; leaf litter, tall grass and short grass (less than
six cm in height), with four traps per habitat, spaced 7 m apart.
Each trap consisted of a deep, cylindrical plastic bucket
(21 cm diameter, 26 cm depth) covered by a funnel that fit it
exactly: this was sunk into the soil as in the previous
experiment (Fig. 1 b ). A wet sponge and some soi 1 were placed
in each trap to keep it moist. During the monsoon, the bottom
of the trap was removed to allow percolation of rainwater into
the soil, and to prevent the trapped animals from drowning.
Traps were monitored every second day for 1 5 weeks between
January and September, during the dry season (January to
April) for ten weeks and during the wet season (June to
September) for five weeks. In this experiment, we focused
only on crickets (Family Gryllidae, Order Orthoptera). The
total number of crickets trapped every 48 hours was counted.
Adults were identified to the genus or species level (wherever
possible) using the taxonomic keys of Chopard ( 1 969).
All experiments were carried out on the campus of the
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in non-landscaped
areas with natural vegetation.
Data were first subjected to an analysis of variance,
followed by post-hoc pair-wise comparisons using either
/-tests (for the first experiment) or Tukey’s USD test (for the
second experiment).
RESULTS
Are pitfall traps containing edible oil as effective as
those containing detergents?
The mean number of individuals captured per trap (n = 5
traps for each of the three treatments) depended both on the
treatment and the particular arthropod taxon being considered
(ANOVA: F= 1 5.47, P< 0.0001 and F = 21. 9, P< 0.0001 for the
main effect of treatment and taxon respectively; F = 5.52,
P < 0.00 1 for the interaction between them). Interestingly, for
ants and cockroaches, traps containing water with a film of oil
were far more effective than those containing either water
alone or water with detergent (Fig. 2a: the letters a, b and c are
used to indicate significant differences at a = 0.05, post-hoc
paired comparison /-tests).
For crickets and grasshoppers, traps containing water
with oil or with detergent were significantly more effective
than those containing water alone (Fig. 2b: symbols mean the
same as in 2a. There were no significant differences in mean
number captured between traps containing oil or detergent
Spiders, on the other hand, were significantly more likely to
be captured in traps containing detergent solution, rather
than those containing water with a film of oil, or water alone
(Fig. 2b: paired comparison /-tests: P < 0.05 in each case).
Dipterans (represented by flies) were captured in low numbers,
but traps with oil or detergent added were significantly more
effective than those containing only water (Fig. 2b: P < 0.05
in each case).
The mean rates of capture of crickets (defined as the
number of individuals captured per trap per day) were 0.09
±0.06 (water alone), 0.59 ±0.27 (water ± oil) and 0.32 ±0.06
(water ± detergent) respectively for the three treatments.
The effects of microhabitat, season and developmental
status on mean capture rates of crickets using live trapping
The mean rate of capture of live crickets in empty traps
in the second experiment was 0.36 ±0. 1 3 individuals per trap
per day. Since the capture rate in pitfall traps was low for
crickets, we pooled the number of individuals captured per
week in the four replicate traps (in each microhabitat) to use
as the individual data points for statistical analysis. Analysis
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
39
EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY OF PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS
30 n
| 25
fc-
©
a
■o
©
20-
g- 15
©
2
E
3
C
C
a
v
£
10-
5-
Crickets Grasshoppers Spiders Flies
Fig 2: Comparison of the effectiveness of pitfall traps containing only water, water with a film of oil, and detergent solution in capturing
different arthropod taxa The letters a, b and c above the bars indicate significant differences between treatments (a = 0 05)
(Note the difference in scale between the two graphs)
of variance was then carried out on these data to test the
effects of three factors: microhabitat (leaf litter, tall grass or
short grass), season (dry or wet) and developmental stage
(nymph or adult) on mean capture rate of crickets. Both
developmental status and season had highly significant
independent effects (F = 35.45, P < 0.0001, F = 22.65,
P < 0.0001 respectively), and microhabitat had a marginally
significant independent effect, on capture rate (F = 3.07,
P = 0.05). In addition, there were highly significant interactions
between the effects of microhabitat and developmental status
(F = 1 3 . 1 7, P < 0.000 1 ), and between microhabitat and season
(F = 8.63, P < 0.001). Significantly more nymphs than adults
were captured (when pooled over the seasons) in both leaf
litter and tall grass microhabitats, whereas nymphs and adults
were trapped in approximately equal (low) numbers in the
short grass habitat (Fig. 3a: the letters a and b are used to
denote significant differences at the 0.05 level of significance
using Tukey’s HSD test). In the tall grass and short grass
habitats, the mean number of crickets captured per week
(pooling nymph and adult numbers) was far higher in the wet
season than the dry (Fig. 3b). In the leaf litter habitat, however,
the mean numbers captured were approximately the same in
both wet and dry season.
Species composition
A total of 15 species of crickets were captured in live
traps: 13 species belonging to six genera of the subfamily
Gryllinae (field crickets) and two species of the genus
Pteronemobius (subfamily Nemobiinae or ground crickets)
(Table 1). Of the 15 species, ten were found as adults
Habitat type
Habitat type
Fig. 3: Capture rates of crickets by live trapping; a: Comparison of capture rates of nymphal instars (hatched bars) and adults (black
bars) in three types of micro-habitat, b: Comparison of capture rates of crickets between the dry (hatched bars) and wet (black bars)
seasons in three types of micro-habitat. The letters a and b above the bars indicate significant differences between factors (a = 0 .05)
40
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY OF PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS
Table 1: Species composition and abundance of adult crickets captured in three micro-habitats in the dry and wet seasons
No
Genus
Species
Total number of individuals captured
Short grass
Tall grass
Leaf litter
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry Wet
1
Scapsipedus
grylloides
15
1
4
17 8
2
Loxoblemmus
equestris
1
2
1
3
Coiblemmus
compactus
7
3
1
4
Coiblemmus
unknown
2
5
Itaropsls
tenellas
1
1
3
6
Gryllopsis
maculithorax
1
2
7
Gryllopsis
falconneti
2
8
Gryllopsis
femorata
3
2
9
Gryllopsis
furcata
1
10
Gryllopsis
unknown
1
11
Gryllus
fletcheri
1
12
Gryllus
guttiventris
7
6
3
13
Gryllus
confirmatus
2
14
Pteronemobius
csikii
7
1
15
Pteronemobius
taprobanensis
1
3
2
Total
14
38
5
24
21 10
exclusively in the wet
season, one ( Pteronemobius csikii )
The efficiency of pitfall trapping has been studied earlier.
only
in the dry season
, with the other four species being
for the effects on capture rates and probabilities, of features
found as adults in both wet and dry seasons. With respect to
such as the material used, trap size, different chemicals and
microhabitat, four species were unique to the tall grass and
two to the short grass. Three species, namely Scapsipedus
grylloides, Coiblemmus compactus and Loxoblemmus
equestris were found in all three microhabitats. Of the
remaining six species, five were found in both short and tall
grass, whereas one species ( Pteronemobius csikii) was
shared between the leaf litter and short grass habitats.
The low capture rates of crickets precluded a meaningful
statistical analysis of relative abundance and microhabitat
preferences of species.
DISCUSSION
Our experiments show that the use of poisonous
chemicals can be avoided in pitfall trapping of arthropods. A
small quantity of edible oil is a good substitute for the more
commonly used detergents, and does not compromise the
efficiency of capture for insect groups such as crickets,
grasshoppers, ants, cockroaches and flies. In fact, the capture
rate for cockroaches and ants was much higher in traps
containing oil rather than detergents, perhaps because the
oil acted as an attractant to these highly chemosensitive
animals. The use of both oil and detergent, however, makes
mounting and preservation of specimens more difficult.
preservatives, and the frequency of sampling (Luff 1975;
Vennila and Rajagopal 1 999, 2000). Almost all of these studies
have focused on one taxonomic group, the beetles. These
studies have revealed that traps made of glass have
significantly higher capture efficiencies than either plastic or
metal (Luff 1975; Vennila and Rajagopal 2000). In their study
of tropical carabid beetles, Vennila and Rajagopal (2000) found
no significant differences in capture rates between traps
containing different kinds of chemicals or preservatives. In
their experiments, empty traps were significantly less effective
than those containing chemicals. This may have been because
their empty traps were not designed to prevent live insects
from escaping.
For one group of insects, the crickets (Suborder
Ensifera, Order Orthoptera), we have demonstrated the
possibility of live trapping without compromising on capture
rates. The mean rate of capture of live crickets in empty traps
in the second experiment in our study was comparable with
those yielded in the traps containing preservatives in the first
experiment. Since the design of the traps was somewhat
different in the two experiments, however (greater trap depth
and the use of a funnel in the second experiment), it is possible
that the capture efficiency of traps containing oil or detergent
has been underestimated. As discussed earlier, live trapping
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
41
EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY OF PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS
offers a number of advantages over conventional pitfall
trapping, provided that it is possible to monitor traps
frequently. The latter is an important caveat, since pitfall traps
are typically used in large-scale studies for long-term
monitoring of species diversity and relative abundance of
arthropod fauna in different regions or habitats, where it is
often not possible to monitor traps frequently and the use of
preservatives becomes necessary. In studies involving larger
arthropods in a narrow taxonomic category, such as field
crickets, however, live trapping may be a viable alternative.
The estimates of relative abundance of species may
also be more reliable with live trapping: the addition of
chemicals may introduce strong biases in the capture
probabilities of different taxa that may be attracted or repelled
by these chemicals to different extents (Luff 1975). In our
study, for example, ants and cockroaches were probably
attracted by the scent of the oil, whereas spiders appeared to
be attracted to detergent solutions.
In an extensive study that evaluated a number of
sampling methods for insects in tropical forests, Gadagkar et
al. ( 1 990) found that whereas pitfall trapping was an effective
method for hymenopterans, coleopterans, dipterans and
hemipterans, capture rates for orthopterans were
comparatively low. Our data also corroborate these results:
the capture efficiency for ants and cockroaches was, on an
average, higher than that for orthopterans, perhaps because
orthopterans are generally less numerous than
hymenopterans and dipterans. Inexplicably, few dipterans and
coleopterans were captured in our study.
In the case of field and ground crickets, nymphal instars
were trapped in significantly higher numbers than adults, in
the leaf litter and tall grass microhabitats. This may be due to
the higher density and smaller size of nymphs compared to
adults, which would increase their probability of capture. In
the short grass habitat, however, both nymphs and adults
were captured at similar low rates, which may indicate that
this is not a preferred habitat for either. Our empirical
observations suggested, however, that the short grass was
in fact a preferred habitat for the adults of at least four species
of field crickets, two of which were never captured in the
pitfall traps over the entire sampling period of 1 5 weeks.
In the grassy microhabitats, the mean abundance of
field and ground crickets was much higher in the wet season
Brennan, K.E.C., J.D. Majer & N. Reygaert (1999): Determination
of an optimal pitfall trap size for sampling spiders in a Western
Australian Jarrah forest. J. Insect Cons. 3(4)'. 297-307.
Chopard, L. (1969): The Fauna of India and adjacent countries.
Orthoptera. Vol. 2. Grylloidea. Baptist Mission Press,
Calcutta.
than in the dry, reflecting a general increase in the abundance
of both nymphs and adults, of a number of insect species
during the monsoon. There were, however, no significant
differences in mean abundance between the dry and wet
seasons in the leaf litter microhabitat. This could be because
the species inhabiting the grassy microhabitat are highly
seasonal, with peak abundance during the monsoon, whereas
those in the leaf litter habitat tend to occur throughout the
year. The fact that 8 of the 1 5 species of crickets were trapped
exclusively in grassy habitats during the wet season lends
credence to this view.
The overall low capture rates of crickets in pitfall traps,
however, precluded any meaningful quantitative analysis of
relative abundance of species, both within and between
microhabitats. The data shown in Table 1 were obtained after
15 weeks of sampling, and yet the numbers of crickets
captured, particularly adults, were too low for statistical
analysis of relative abundance at the species level. Other
problems of pitfall trapping include the biases in trapping
ability introduced by microhabitat structure, which could be
different for different species (Melbourne 1997, 1999). This
precludes the use of any general correction factor that could
be applied to an entire taxon above the species level. As a
result, the estimates of relative abundance of cricket species
obtained from pitfall trap data are likely to be highly unreliable.
In our experience, even species richness would be
underestimated, since a number of cricket species that were
found by ad lib acoustic and visual sampling did not appear
in the pitfall traps. The efficiency of pitfall traps and the
unreliability of the data obtained make it a poor method for a
quantitative examination of ensiferan species richness and
relative abundance. We believe that all-out acoustic and visual
sampling may be more effective and reliable for the quantitative
study of ensiferan species assemblages and our future efforts
will be directed at examining and developing these techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Sayantan Biswas, Natasha Mhatre
and Savita Swamy, who helped with the data collection. The
study was funded by the Ministry of Environment & Forests,
Government of India, as part of a grant to the Centre for
Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Gadagkar, R., K. Chandrashekhara & Padmini Nair (1990): Insect
species diversity in the tropics: sampling methods and a case
study. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(3): 337-353.
Luff, M.L. (1975): Some features influencing the efficiency of pitfall
traps. Oecologia 19: 345-357.
Melbourne, B.A., P.J. Gullan & Y.N. Su (1997): Interpreting data
42
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY OF PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS
from pitfall-trap surveys: crickets and slugs in exotic and native
grasslands of the Australian Capital Territory. Mem. Mas. Viet.
56: 361-367.
Melbourne, B.A. (1999): Bias in the effect of habitat structure on
pitfall traps: an experimental evaluation. Aust. J. Ecol. 24:
228-239.
Southwood, T.R.E. (1978): Ecological Methods with particular
reference to the study of insect populations. Chapman & Hall,
London and New York.
Vennila, S. & D. Rajagopal (1999): Optimum sampling effort for
study of tropical ground beetles (Carabidae: Coleoptera) using
pitfall traps. Curr. Sci. 77(2): 281-283.
Vennila, S. & D. Rajagopal (2000): Pitfall trap sampling of tropical
carabids (Carabidae: Coleoptera) - evaluation of traps,
preservatives and sampling frequency. J. Bombay Nat. Hist
Soc. 97(2): 241-246.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
43
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
44-49
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ON
SNAKES COLLECTED BY SUNDARVAN NATURE DISCOVERY CENTRE, AHMEDABAD1
Abdul Jamil Urfi2
'Accepted September, 2003
"Department of Environmental Biology, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India.
Email ajurfi@rediffmail.com
The Sundarvan Nature Discovery Centre in Ahmedabad (Gujarat), collected data on the frequency of occurrence of
snakes and other reptiles during the period June 1 996 to July 1 998. Twelve species of snakes were encountered/released.
Cobra (Naja naja) being the most frequently encountered species, closely followed by Checkered Keelback (Xenochrophis
piscalor) and Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosa). Studies on the seasonal abundance of snakes suggested that their peak
occurrences, corresponding to the monsoon rains, are due to additions to the populations. Predictably, there is some
evidence that snake abundance is positively correlated with ambient temperatures during the non-breeding season. An
analysis of the habitat preferences of various snake species suggests that the occurrence of a species inside or outside
residential premises is roughly correlated with its food preferences.
Key words: Snakes, Gujarat, wildlife rescue. Sundarvan, urban ecology
INTRODUCTION
Sundarvan Nature Discovery Centre (henceforth
referred to as Sundarvan), a facility of the Centre for
Environment Education (CEE)-Ahmedabad, has been active
in nature education using live snakes as a medium, since its
inception in 1978. The staff also helps local people to cope
with snakes that may appear in residential premises or cause
panic among the public (Urfi 1999a). This activity
complements the wildlife rescue programmes undertaken by
governmental agencies and has received wide appreciation
and support from the public. In recent years, Sundarvan has
also taken a number of initiatives in herpetological research
(Urfi et al. 1 999) such as breeding and release of endangered
species of snakes (Urfi 1 999b).
Although Gujarat is rich in herpetofauna, which is
well documented (Gayen 1999; Vyas 1998), there are still
lacunae in our knowledge on snake populations and
patterns of their seasonal abundance. It is well known that
reptiles are difficult to census (Daniel 1983). Therefore
data on their abundance and distribution obtained
through rescue programmes, such as Sundarvan’s, can be
invaluable for studying ecological patterns of reptilian
populations.
As the coordinator of Sundarvan, I made an attempt to
systematically record biological information about snakes
handled during the period 1 996-98. A preliminary analysis of
the data (for 1 996) with a view to discussing the conservation
aspects of Sundarvan’s snake programme has been reported
earlier (Urfi 1999a). In this paper, a larger data set is used to
evaluate the ecological aspects of snake abundance and
distribution in Ahmedabad.
METHODS
To collect data about snakes in Ahmedabad, a ‘snake
form’ was put into use by the author in June 1996. The
information was collected in two categories:
A. People’s perceptions about snakes, and information
to evaluate the educational programmes of Sundarvan
involving snakes. The results of this exercise have been
reported in Urfi ( 1 999a).
B. Data of ecological interest and snake biology,
including 1. date, 2. location of the reptile when caught,
3. species, 4. size/length, 5. health condition and 6. colour.
All requests for removal of snakes/ reptiles were
documented, irrespective of whether they were followed up
or not. The usual procedure was that on receiving a call to
deal with a snake, the park supervisor informed two of the
specially trained ground level staff to attend to it. Once
collected, the snake was either trans-located immediately to
an area far from human habitation or temporarily kept in
Sundarvan before relocation. On location, the Sundarvan staff
was also required to distribute an educational booklet on
snakes prepared by CEE (in English and the local language).
The booklet contains information about snakes, common
myths associated with them, their economic importance, what
to do in case of a snake bite, etc.
Standard methods, such as the hooked aluminium stick,
were used to handle snakes, which were immediately put into
a cloth bag on being caught (Whitaker 1970). In most cases,
the snakes could be identified accurately up to the species in
the field by the Sundarvan attendants, but in case of doubt,
they were brought for examination to the Park Supervisor and
the Sundarvan Coordinator. To estimate length, the snake
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
was held by its tail and suspended against a graduated scale,
fixed on a wall or temporarily fixed on a vertical object in the
field, and the length was read to the nearest centimetre.
However, since this procedure often had to be performed
rapidly, the estimation of lengths was not always accurate.
Moreover, the lengths of only a few species such as Cobra
(Naja naja), Rat Snake ( Ptyas mucosa ) and Checkered
Keelback (Xenochrophis piscator) could be ascertained in
this way.
The data collected from June 1 , 1 996 to July 31,1 998
was later transcribed into a Minitab worksheet (Version 10)
for statistical analysis. Meteorological data of the city of
Ahmedabad for the corresponding period was purchased from
the Indian Meteorological Department, Ahmedabad. The data
was analyzed with a view to answering the following
questions.
1. Which species are reported from Ahmedabad and with
what frequency?
2. What are the temporal patterns of snake abundance
and what biotic and abiotic factors influence these
patterns?
3. What kinds of habitat within urban areas are frequented
by different species of snakes?
RESULTS
Snakes handled by Sundarvan
During the study period, a total of 2,3 1 1 calls for help
with problem snakes (and other reptiles) were received by
Sundarvan, of which 1 , 142 resulted in reptiles being handled.
The reptiles handled included 12 species of snakes and one
species of lizard (the Common Indian Monitor, Varamis
bengalensis). Besides these, some other species were also
brought to Sundarvan or sometimes handled by Sundarvan
staff. These species included the Indian Star Tortoise
( Geochelone elegans) and Indian Mud Turtle ( Lissemys
punctata ), but such cases were few (< 1 0 of the entire sample)
and sporadic. Whereas 'snake calls’ came from virtually all
Fig. 1: Number of calls (% age) to deal with reptiles received by
Sundarvan during 1 996-98 in relation to the distance
parts of Ahmedabad and also from areas lying outside the
city limits, the majority (approximately 90%) were from a radius
of about 8 km around Sundarvan (Fig. 1 ).
Before we can start examining the Sundarvan data for
any pattern, it is necessary to ascertain that it is free from bias
brought about by human factors. For instance, the staff who
went out on reptile handling missions could be reporting more
or less calls than there actually were, and this could introduce
some bias in the data. However, a bias if any would reflect
itself in a number of ways, for instance as discrepancies in
the number of snakes handled on different days of the week
or as a discrepancy in the number of blank calls (i.e., no snake
handled) and realized calls (i.e., those which resulted in a
snake being handled). The number of calls on any given day
was not influenced by the day of the week (Fig. 2). A goodness
of fit test for the percentage of snakes being different from a
Days of the week
Fig 2: Number of records for snakes handled by Sundarvan on
each day of the week expressed as a percentage
(Data for only a few randomly chosen months has been used)
uniform percentage of snakes being handled on each day of
the week, yielded a non-significant result (x2 = 3.598, d.f. = 6,
NS). In addition, there was a high correlation between blank
calls and realized calls (Fig. 3, r2 = 91 .4%, d.f. = 23, p <0.001).
Further, if there were indeed any discrepancies in attending
to calls then it would also be reflected as a poor correlation in
the number of calls per month across the two seasons. We
analyzed our data for any differences for the two years
separately and discovered that the correlation (r2) between
calls attended per month for the seasons 1 996-97 and 1 997-98
was 84.3 % (p = 0.00 1 ).
In Ahmedabad, snake charmers are a regular, though
not common, feature of the cultural landscape. Sometimes
they let loose their snakes in housing localities and then on
request from panic stricken people, catch them, extracting a
small fee in the process (Whitaker and Whitaker 1986). The
snakes used by snake charmers are easily recognized by their
poor body condition and in the case of venomous snakes
such as Cobra, by their fangs having been pulled out. In our
sample, we came across some instances where the snake
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
45
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Number of realised calls
Fig 3: Relationship between the number of realised calls
and blank calls (per month) received by Sundarvan
during the study period
recovered was suspected to be one let loose by snake
charmers, but such cases were few (<5).
From the data on the abundance of snakes during the
study period (Table 1), it emerges that the Cobra is most
abundant (35%), followed by Checkered Keelback (24%) and
Rat Snake (20%). Incidentally, Cobras have also been reported
from other cities in Gujarat (Snehal Patel, pers. comm. ) as the
most common species in snake rescue data.
Temporal patterns in snake abundance
Fig. 4 shows the seasonal abundance of snakes and
reptiles for each of the two years of study. The monthly
distribution for snakes differed significantly from that
expected under the null hypothesis of equal numbers per
month (GOF test x2 = 126.81, 1 1 d.f., P < 0.01 for the season
1 996-97 and x2 = 232.50, 1 1 d.f., P < 0.0 1 for the season 1 997-
□ 1996 - 1997
Months
Fig. 4: Monthly distributions of the number of snakes for 1996-97
and 1997-98 recorded by Sundarvan
98.). The majority of the snakes handled by Sundarvan
(approximately 75%) were from June to November during each
of the two seasons. These results indicate a highly clumped
distribution of snakes in the yearly cycle. As these months of
reptilian abundance correspond to the monsoon, which
stretches from June to September in western India, these
seasonal peaks could be a result of the physical effects of the
rains. It is possible that rain drives the reptiles out of their
burrows, which get filled with water. While this idea is difficult
to test, an alternative and perhaps more likely explanation
could be that these seasonal peaks reflect recruitments to the
population.
To test this idea, we segregated the data into two
categories, young and adult, based on size. Since we had
information on snake lengths for only a few species, this
analysis could be done only for the Rat Snake, Cobra and
Table 1 Snakes rescued by Sundarvan during the period June 1996 to July 1998
Species
1996
1997
1998
Total
Typhlopidae
Common Worm Snake Ramphotyphlops braminus ( Daudin 1803)
1
0
0
1
Boidae
Common Sand Boa Eryx conicus (Schneider 1801)
9
9
13
30
Red Sand Boa Eryx johnii (Russell 1801)
3
4
0
7
Colubridae
Trinket Snake Elaphe helena (Daudin 1803)
1
0
0
1
Common Rat Snake Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus 1758)
39
105
50
194
Banded Kukri Oligodon arnensis (Shaw 1802)
3
3
3
9
Common Wolf Snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus 1758)
0
10
7
17
Striped Keelback Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus 1758)
2
17
4
23
Checkered Keelback Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider 1799)
69
129
31
229
Elapidae
Common Krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider 1801)
30
56
18
104
Indian Cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus 1758)
96
190
55
341
Viperidae
Saw-scaled Viper Echis carinatus (Schneider 1801)
1
3
0
4
46
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Checkered Keelback for which individuals smaller than 60 cm,
45 cm and 45 cm, respectively were classified as juvenile
(Daniel 1983; Whitaker 1978). When the combined data for
the monthly abundance of the three species of snakes was
plotted against the number of juveniles, a correlation was
observed (r2 = 67.8% P < 0.00 1 ), suggesting that the peaks of
seasonal abundance could be due to the recruitment effort
(Fig. 5).
To test the idea that weather conditions influence the
number of calls received by Sundarvan, we explored the
influence of temperature and rainfall using a subset of our
data including only the winter months from November to
February. Data for only four species, the Rat Snake, Checkered
Keelback, Common Krait and Indian Cobra was used, as only
these were recorded in large numbers (exceeding 1 00). As the
results show (Fig. 6), the number of snakes handled was
positively correlated with maximum temperature (r2 = 8.1%,
d.f. = 238, p < 0.00 1 ) and minimum temperature (r2 = 15.5%, d.f
= 238, p < 0.001). However, with respect to rainfall, no clear
pattern emerged, due to the small sample size.
Habitat associations of snakes
As Table 2 shows, snakes are ubiquitous, to be found
in every conceivable place, and indeed sometimes in quite
unusual places too. We did not attempt to analyze habitat
selection for each species individually because more
information, especially on environmental factors at the local
level, would be required for each of the habitats where snakes
were found. However, from the available data it is still possible
Table 2: Habitats in Ahmedabad city from where snakes were
rescued by Sundarvan during the study area
Indoors
Outdoors
Including residential houses,
Heaps, Garbage
godown, water pump room
Rubble/stone/bricks
in farm houses etc
Woodpile
Bathroom
Near water tap
Near commode
Others
Kitchen
Kitchen garden/nursery
Trees in garden/orchard/farm
Near gas cylinder
Water tank, Parking lot
Bedroom
Roads (in urban areas and on
the periphery of the city, close to
Beneath the bed
the country)
Others
Inside false ceiling
Inside air-conditioner
Inside fuse box
Near window
On door grills
In cracks on the wall and
on roofs tiles
Well
Rare and unusual sites Motorcycle seat, Motor car engine,
Swimming pool
to study the extent to which each species had a propensity to
be indoors or outdoors. From our analysis (Table 3), it appears
that some snakes such as Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon
aulicus) and Indian Cobra were mostly recorded indoors, while
Table 3: The frequency (%) with which different species of snakes were encountered in indoor or outdoor locations by Sundarvan
along with information on their diets and foraging methods
Species
Indoor
Outdoor
Known diet & foraging method*
Common Sand Boa
14
86
Predominantly rats, occasionally frogs Hatchlings feed on insects, mice, small lizards
and later on birds and rodents Prey caught by constriction
Red Sand Boa
16
84
Mainly rats (rodents) Prey caught by constriction
Trinket Snake
50
50
Mainly rodents, occasionally birds and their eggs Young consume insects and small
lizards Prey apparently caught by constriction
Rat Snake
38
62
Very eclectic diet, includes rats, frogs, toads and also birds, geckos, bats and snakes
Capture of prey by stealth and power.
Banded Kukri
50
50
Geckos, skinks, small mice, bird & reptile eggs. Young feed on insects, their larvae
and spiders Prey caught by swift movements in which the strong teeth are useful.
Wolf Snake
84
16
Geckos, skinks, mice and frogs Prey caught by swift movements in which the strong
teeth are useful
Striped Keelback
46
54
Mainly frogs but also toads, small lizards and rodents Young known to feed on
insects, tadpoles etc Prey capture by stealth and swift strikes.
Checkered Keelback
36
64
Mainly fish, frogs and aquatic creatures. Prey captured by swift strikes.
Common Krait
47
53
Mainly snakes, lizards and rodents Prey immobilized by poison
Indian Cobra
57
43
Mainly rats. Prey immobilized by poison.
‘from Daniel (1983) and Whitaker (1978)
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
47
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Fig. 5: The relationship between the number of juvenile snakes
per month and the number of snakes of all age groups in that
month, recorded by Sundarvan during the study period
(Note this analysis includes data for only three species, Cobra,
Checkered Keelback and Rat Snake)
others such as Common Sand Boa ( Eryx conicus ), Red Sand
Boa ( Eryx johnii), Rat Snake, Striped Keelback ( Amphiesma
stolatum ), Checkered Keelback and Common Krait ( Bungarus
caeruleus) were recorded outdoors on the majority of
occasions (>50%). The rest of the species were recorded
indoors and outdoors in equal proportions.
DISCUSSION
Excluding the Family Hydrophiidae (sea snakes), our
sample has representatives of five out of the eight families of
Serpentes recorded in Gujarat. The species missing in our
sample could be those which are partial to undisturbed
environment free of humans, in the less populated parts of
the state, or those which are less cosmopolitan in distribution.
Of course, the absence of some species in our sample could
also mean that they were overlooked, but this is a remote
possibility. Also, since our data emerges from reptiles as and
when they are noticed by humans, it is not comparable to
data from a census or inventory.
Our analysis of seasonal peaks of snake abundance
strongly suggests that they are due to the higher proportion
of juveniles in certain months. For cobra, egg laying is
recorded in April and May, and can continue up to August
according to Daniel ( 1 983), with eggs hatching after a period
of c. 60 days. Also, according to Whitaker (1978), the cobra
may breed more than once per year. As for the Checkered
Keelback, the egg laying period is reported to be November
to May according to Daniel (1983) and March according to
Whitaker (1978) with an incubation period of about 60-70
days. In the case of Rat Snake, egg laying is in August-
September, the young being born during September and
January.
The influence of environmental factors on the activity
of reptiles is well known (Cloudsley-Thompson 1 97 1 ). In this
>.
(TJ
-o
0)
Q.
c/>
"O
o
o
(D
DC
6-
4-
2-
0 —
18
• ••
• • • m
38
Maximum Temperature (degrees C)
5 10 15 20 25
Minimum Temperature (degrees C)
Fig 6: The number of snakes handled by Sundarvan per day in
winter (from November to February, data for the two seasons
1996-97 and 1997-98 combined) compared with daily maximum
air temperature (upper graph) and daily minimum air temperature
(lower graph) for the city of Ahmedabad
Each point represents a day
regard, our results indicating a positive relationship between
ambient temperature and number of reptiles recorded are along
predictable lines (Shine and Koenig 2001). However, the
correlation is not strong, which could be due to the fact that
individual species may have a different relationship with
ambient environmental factors and this aspect needs to be
probed further. One would also expect close relationships to
emerge in the abundance patterns of snake numbers with
rainfall. While rainfall would be negatively correlated with
temperature, it will influence the behaviour of reptiles in novel
ways (Auffenberg 1994).
It is reasonable to assume that the site where a snake is
found would have something to do with its habitat preference,
of which one of the crucial factors is food availability. Factors
such as safety from predators, micro-climate (including
temperature, humidity) could also play a role. While we have
no information of the habitat characteristics with respect to
micro-climate, it is possible to compare the known food
preferences of various species and their occurrence outdoors
or indoors, and the availability of food in these two broad
categories. As the information on ten species of snakes (Table
3) suggests, among the outdoor type of snakes such as the
two Boas and the Rat Snake, their food is also of the type
which one would expect to find mostly outdoors. Contrary to
48
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
what its name suggests, the Rat Snake’s diet is eclectic and
does not consist entirely of rats (Daniel 1 983). The Checkered
Keelback’s prey is mainly fish, frogs and other aquatic
creatures that would be found in ponds and wetlands, and
this is why it is reported mostly outdoors (64%). However, on
36% of the occasions it was encountered indoors, perhaps
while it is in transit from one habitat patch, which is often
isolated and fragmented, to another.
Among the snakes found indoors, the Wolf Snake is at
the top of the list. Its main prey is recorded to be geckos and
inside Indian homes the Asian House Gecko ( Hemidactylus
flaviviridis ) is a common and abundant prey. In our study,
the Cobra was also largely an indoor species, with 57% cases
reported from indoors. This may be because its principal food
is the rat, which is a common pest in all types of human
premises. Studies have also shown a high correlation between
the number of cobras and the build up of rat populations at
the time of paddy crop harvesting in certain rural areas of
India (Whitaker 1978). Generally speaking, wherever there
are rats, cobras are likely to follow.
Snakes are usually seen and reported when they are on
the move in search of food, or while prospecting new habitats
as their original habitat gets destroyed due to land
modification. Given that in our sample the majority of the
reptiles were recovered from an area of 8 km around
Sundarvan, it would be useful to examine the development in
this area. The information on the population growth and built
up area, as revealed by satellite imagery data and ground
surveys indicates that the area around Sundarvan is
undergoing massive modification, with numerous housing
and commercial complexes coming up (Bhowmick et al. 1 997).
From the viewpoint of both conservationists and town
planners, this merits serious discussion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Kartikeya V. Sarabhai, Director, Centre for
Environment Education, Ahmedabad who encouraged me to
undertake this project and provided support at crucial
junctures. This project would not have succeeded without
the cooperation of the park supervisor (late) Keshubhai
Jethwa, the two park attendants Madansingh Sisodia and
Jagru Prasad Pal and the Sundarvan office assistants (late)
Mukesh Gajjar and Vinod Bhatt, who painstakingly copied
the information from the snake forms onto files. At various
stages members of the Sundarvan Advisory Committee
offered help and suggestions; I wish to particularly thank
Kandarp Kathju, Anil Patel, Kiran Desai, Lavkumar Khacher,
Lalsinh R.K. Raol and Dr. R.K. Sahu (Superintendent, Kamala
Nehru Zoological Park, Ahmedabad) for their comments. I
thank my colleagues Mr. Rajindersinh Jadeja, E.K. Nareshwar
and Wilson Solanki for their cooperation and the
Meteorological Department, Ahmedabad for data on
temperature and rainfall. I also thank Prof. T.R. Rao and
Prof. C.R. Babu, both from the University of Delhi for
encouragement.
REFERENCES
Auffenberg, W. (1994): The Bengal monitor. University Press of
Florida, Gainesville.
Bhowmik, M.M., N.M. Bhavasar, K.J. Gajjar, P..P. Desai, B.S.
Aggarwal, S.K. Pathan, R.J. Bhanderi, A.S. Arya & R.R.
Navalgund (1997): Development plan of Ahmedabad Urban
Development Authority for the year 2011. Vol. 1. Remote
sensing and GIS approach. Technical report. Ahmedabad Urban
Development Authority, Ahmedabad and Space Applications
Centre, Ahmedabad.
Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. (1971 ): The temperature and water relations
of reptiles. Merrow, London.
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural
History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 141.
Gayen, N.C. (1999): A synopsis of the reptiles of Gujarat, western
India. Hamadryad 24: 1-22.
Shine, R. & J. Koenig (2001): Snakes in the garden: an analysis of
reptiles “rescued" by community-based wildlife carers. Biological
Conservation 102 : 271-283.
Urfi, A.J. (1999a): The snake conservation programme of Sundarvan
Nature Discovery Centre, Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India): An
evaluation. Zoos' Print. 14: 7-10.
Urfi, A.J. (1999b): Breeding and releasing Indian rock pythons,
Ahmedabad, India. Re-introduction news (IUCN). Pp. 17, 2 4.
Urfi, A.J., K. Jethwa & E.K. Nareshwar (1999): Some recent
herpetological initiatives of Sundarvan Nature Discovery Centre,
Ahmedabad. Cobra: 37: 17-23.
Vyas, R. (1998): The reptiles of Gujarat state: updated distribution.
Tigerpaper 25: 8-14.
Whitaker, R. (1970): The catching of snakes. J Bombay Nat Hist.
Soc. 68: 274-278.
Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian snakes, a field guide. Macmillan,
Delhi. 154 pp.
Whitaker, Z. & R. Whitaker (1986): The snakes around us. National
Book Trust, Delhi. 61 pp.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
49
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
50-55
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN D1BRU-SAIKHOWA NATION AF PARK, ASSAM1
A. Wakid2'3 and S.P. Biswas2'4
'Accepted September, 2003
department of Life Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh 786 004, Assam, India.
’Email: wakid@rediffmail com
4EmaiI: spbsdu@yahoo.com
Fish species from various aquatic bodies of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park were collected and identified during the
study period 2000-2002. Altogether 76 species offish from 24 families and 49 genera, including 7 endangered species
were recorded from the study area. The status and abundance of all these recorded species are discussed, with the
natural and anthropogenic pressures that they are facing.
Key words: Fish fauna, status, abundance, protected area, Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, endangered, anthropogenic
pressures
INTRODUCTION
Northeast India comprises seven states namely Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland and Tripura, each with vast and varied water
resources in the form of rivers (19,150 km), reservoirs (23,792
ha), beels, lakes and swamps (1,43,740 ha), ponds and mini-
barrages (40,808 ha), and low-lying paddy-cum-fish culture
systems (2,780 ha) (Mahanta et al. 2001). The region is
considered one of the hotspots of freshwater fish biodiversity
of the world (Kottelat and Whitten 1996). There are two major
drainage systems in this area - River Brahmaputra in the
northern region, and River Barak in the southern region.
Besides these two rivers, the Chindwin drainage system also
feeds the eastern region. With its 267 fish species, northeast
India contributes about 3 3 . 1 3% of the total freshwater fishes
of India (Sen 2000). Among its seven states, Assam has the
largest number of fishes with 200 species (Mahanta et al.
2001).
A number of workers have studied the fishes of Assam
(Motwani et al. 1962; Yadava and Chandra 1994; Biswas 1998;
Sarkar and Ponniah 2000; Biswas and Boruah 2000; Boruah
and Biswas 2002; Bhattacharjya et al. 2001). However, few
reports are available on the fishes of protected areas of Assam
(Sen and Choudhury 1977; Biswas et al. 1996; Dutta et al.
1998; Wakid and Biswas 2001). Due to this paucity of
information, and to begin the evaluation of the diversity and
status of fish fauna in the protected areas of Assam, an
attempt has been made to investigate the fish fauna of Dibru-
Saikhowa National Park.
STUDY AREA
Dibru-Saikhowa is the easternmost National Park of
Assam, with an area of 340 sq. km, extending from 27° 35’ to
27° 45' N and 95° 1 O' to 95° 40' E in Tinsukia and Dibrugarh
districts. This whole area, which is now becoming a river
island, is flanked by River Brahmaputra on the northern side
and River Lohit on the southern, eastern and western sides.
However, the conversion of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
into a river island is of recent origin (since 2000). The
geomorphological change has resulted from the widening of
Dangori and Dibru rivers and shifting of the course of the
Loh it river (Sarma and Phukan 2003).
The entire area is flat terrain comprising the flood plain
of the Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers. It has a subtropical
climate with an annual rainfall of 2,300-2,800 mm. The elevation
averages 118 m above msl, with a variation of 1 10-126 m.
There are large numbers of perennial streams (namely
Paroparajan, Salbeel nallah, Dodhiajan, Laikajan, Ajuka, etc.)
and seasonal streams (namely Garamjan, Erasuti, etc.).
Perennial as well as seasonal wetlands and marshes (namely
Tarali, Salbeel, Burhi beel, Hatighuli, Nagapather, etc.), also
criss-cross the entire National Park (Wakid 2004).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in Dibru-Saikhowa
National Park during June 2000 to June 2002, mainly in the
pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and winter seasons.
Topographical maps of the Survey of India (scale 1 :50,000)
were used to trace the water bodies of the area, and fish
specimens were collected from the identified water bodies
with the help of cast net, scoop net and gill net. Efforts were
made to avoid statistical bias. Samples were preserved in
1 0% formalin and brought to the laboratory for identification
and further studies. Identifications were made with the help
of Jayaram (1981, 1 999); Dutta Munshi and Shrivastava (1988)
and Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Anon. (1998) was followed
to determine their global status.
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK
Table 1: Diversity, abundance and status offish fauna in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
Scientific Name
Abundance
IUCN status
Family Notopteridae
1.
Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)
+
LRnt
2.
Chitala chitala (Ham. - Buch )
++
EN
Family Anguillidae
3
Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray & Hardwicke)
+
EN
Family; Clupeidae
4.
Gudusia chapra (Ham - Buch.)
++
LRIc
5
Hilsa ( Tenualosa ) ilisha (Ham - Buch.)
+
VU
Family: Cyprinidae
6.
Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham. - Buch.)
+++
LRIc
7.
Aspidoparia jaya (Ham - Buch )
+++
VU
8.
A morar( Ham. - Buch )
+++
LRnt
9
Barilius barila (Ham. - Buch.)
++
LRnt
10
B barna (Ham - Buch )
+
LRnt
11.
B. bendelisis (Ham - Buch.)
+
LRnt
12.
Bengana (formerly Rasbora) elenga (Ham. - Buch )
++
NA
13.
Catla catla (Ham. - Buch )
+++
VU
14
Chela cachius ( atpar ) (Ham - Buch.)
+++
NA
15.
C. laubuca (Ham. - Buch.)
-H-
LRIc
16.
Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
17.
C reba (Ham - Buch.)
++
VU
18
Crossocheilus latius latius (Ham. - Buch )
+++
DD
19
Danio dangila (Ham - Buch.)
++
NA
20
Esomus danricus (Ham. - Buch.)
+++
LRIc
21
Labeo angra (Ham. - Buch.)
++
LRnt
22.
L. bata (Ham. - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
23
L. boga (Ham. - Buch.)
++
LRnt
24
L. calbasu (Ham. - Buch )
+++
LRnt
25
L. gonius (Ham - Buch )
-H-+
LRnt
26.
L pangusia (Ham. - Buch.)
++
LRnt
27.
L rohita (Ham. - Buch )
-H-
LRnt
28
Rasbora daniconius (Ham - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
29.
Puntius conchonius (Ham. - Buch.)
+++
VU
30
P sarana sarana (Ham - Buch.)
-H-
VU
31.
P. sophore (Ham. - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
32
P. ticto (Ham. - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
33
Torputitora (Ham. - Buch )
++
EN
Family: Balitoridae
34
Acanthocobitis (= Nemacheilus) botia (Ham - Buch.)
++
LRnt
Family: Cobitidae
35.
Botia dario (Ham.- Buch )
+
NA
36.
B rostrata Gunther
+
NA
Family Bagridae
37.
Aorichthys aor (Ham.- Buch.)
+++
NA
38.
Mystus bleekeri (Day)
+++
VU
39.
M. cavasius (Ham - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
40.
M. tengara (Ham.- Buch.)
+++
NA
41.
M vlttatus (Bloch)
+++
VU
42.
Rita rita (Ham. - Buch )
+
LRnt
Family Siluridae
43.
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
++
EN
44.
O pabda ( Ham - Buch )
++
EN
45.
O pabo (Ham. - Buch )
++
NA
46.
Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider)
+++
LRnt
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
51
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK
Table 1 : Diversity, abundance and status of fish fauna in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park ( contd '
Scientific Name
Abundance
IUCN status
Family Schilbeidae
47. Ailia coila (Ham - Buch.)
++
VU
48. Clupisoma garua (Ham. - Buch.)
++
VU
49. Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham. - Buch )
++
EN
50 Silonia silondia (Ham. - Buch.)
+-f
LRnt
Family: Pangasiidae
51 . Pangasius pangasius (Ham. - Buch.)
+
CR
Family: Sisoridae
52. Bagarius bagarius (Ham. - Buch.)
-H-+
VU
53. Sisor rhabdophorus Ham. - Buch
+
EN
Family Claridae
54. Clarias batrachus (Linn.)
+++
VU
Family: Heteropneustidae
55. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)
+++
VU
Family Chacidae
56 Chaca chaca (Ham. - Buch.)
-H-
NA
Family Belomdae
57. Xenentodon cancila (Ham - Buch )
+++
LRnt
Family Symbranchidae
58 Monopterus cuchia (Ham. - Buch )
++
LRnt
Family Chandidae
59. Chanda nama Ham - Buch
+++
NA
Family Nandidae
60. Badis badis (Ham. - Buch.)
+
NA
61 Nandus nandus (Ham. - Buch.)
+
LRnt
Family Gobndae
62. Glossogobius giuris (Ham. - Buch.)
++
LRnt
Family Anabantidae
63. Anabas testudmeus (Bloch)
+
VU
Family Belontidae
64 Colisa fasciatus (Schneider)
+++
LRnt
65 C lalia (Ham. - Buch.)
++
NA
66 C sofa (Ham - Buch )
+++
NA
Family Channidae
67. Channa barca (Ham - Buch )
+++
NA
68 C. steward (Playfair)
++
NA
69 C marulius (Ham - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
70 C punctatus (Bloch)
+++
LRnt
71 C striata (Bloch)
+++
LRIc
72 C orientalis ( gachua ) (Schneider)
4-f
VU
Family: Mastacembelidae
73 Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
+++
NA
74 Macrognathus aral (Bloch)
+++
LRnt
75. M. pancalus Ham. - Buch
+++
LRnt
Family: Tetraodontidae
76 Tetraodon cutcutia (Ham - Buch.)
+++
LRnt
CR: Critically Endangered, E N : Endangered, LRnt: Low Risk near threatened
, LRIc: Low Risk least concern,
VU: Vulnerable, DD: Data Deficient, NA NotAssessed,
+: Rare, ++: Occasional, +++: Common
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(Table 1
). These species represent 24 families and 49 genera.
From all the water bodies of Dibru-Saikhowa >431101141
Park, a total of 76 species of fish were collected and identified
of which Family Cyprinidae ranks highest with 28 species.
Among the genera, the most abundant was Labeo with seven
species. According to the status given by IUCN, the species
52
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK
Rare
(15 2%)
Common
(48 1%)
Occasional
(367%)
Fig 1: Relative abundance of fish fauna
in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
we recorded include one critically endangered (CR), seven
endangered (EN), thirty-one Lower Risk-near threatened
(LRnt), five Lower Risk-least concern (LRlc), fifteen vulnerable
(VU), one data deficient (DD), while sixteen species were not
assessed (NA) (Table 2). The endangered and critically
endangered species recorded are shown in Table 3. From the
estimation of relative abundance, 1 3 species were categorized
as rare, 27 as occasional and 36 species as common (Fig. 1).
The water bodies of the Park have been facing both
natural and anthropogenic pressure. Among the natural
pressures, the main one is the high rate of si Ration caused by
the frequent floods of River Brahmaputra and River Lohit.
The impact of flooding caused by the Lohit at the Park is
much greater than that of the Brahmaputra. Due to
deforestation in its catchment areas, Lohit carries an enormous
silt load during every flood, which gets deposited on the
floor of the wetlands. This results in eutrophication in most
of the wetlands of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, notably
Raidang beel. The shrinkage of habitat has a tremendous
effect on the abundance of many species like Botia dario,
Nandus nandus, Anabas testudineus from this National Park.
Among the anthropogenic pressures, fishing is the
greatest threat to the Park. There are more than 36 fringe
villages and two forest villages in this National Park and
majority of the villagers are dependent on fishing in and around
the waterbodies of the Park for their livelihood. This
dependence is increasing day by day due to rapid population
growth as well as loss of agricultural land due to erosion and
siltation by frequent floods. This leads to illegal practices
such as fishing with monofilament gill-nets and fish poisons,
increased fishing intensity, and fishing in the core area of the
Park, which are becoming major threats to the fish fauna of
the Park.
Table 2: The status and diversity of the recorded fish species from the Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
SI No
Family
Status of Family
Total
CR EN
LRnt
LRlc
VU
DD
NA
1
Notopteridae
— 1
1
—
—
—
—
2
2
Anguillidae
— 1
—
—
__
—
—
1
3.
Clupeidae
■— —
—
1
1
—
—
2
4.
Cyprinidae
— 1
15
3
5
1
3
28
5
Balitoridae
— —
1
—
—
—
—
1
6.
Cobitidae
— —
—
—
—
—
2
2
7.
Bagridae
— —
2
—
2
—
2
6
8
Siluridae
— 2
1
—
—
—
1
4
9
Schilbeidae
— 1
1
—
2
—
—
4
10
Pangasiidae
1 —
—
—
—
—
—
1
11.
Sisoridae
— 1
—
—
1
—
—
2
12
Claridae
— —
—
—
1
—
—
1
13.
Heteropneustidae
— — •
—
—
1
—
—
1
14.
Chacidae
— —
—
—
—
—
1
1
15.
Belonidae
— —
1
—
—
—
—
1
16
Symbranchidae
— —
1
—
—
—
—
1
17
Chandidae
— —
—
—
—
—
1
1
18.
Nandidae
_
1
—
—
—
1
2
19.
Gobiidae
— —
1
—
—
—
—
1
20.
Anabantidae
— —
—
—
1
—
—
1
21.
Belontidae
— —
1
—
—
—
2
3
22
Channidae
— —
2
1
1
—
2
6
23.
Mastacembelidae
— —
2
—
—
—
1
3
24
Tetrodontidae
— —
1
—
—
—
—
1
Total
1 7
31
5
15
1
16
76
CR: Critically Endangered, E N : Endangered, LRnt: Low Risk near threatened, LRlc Low Risk least concern,
VU: Vulnerable, DD
Data Deficient, NA
Not Assessed
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
53
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK
Table 3 List of Critically Endangered and Endangered fish
species from Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
No
Name of species
Abundance
1.
Pangasius pangasius (Ham-Buch )
+
2
Chita la chitala (Ham )
++
3
Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)
+
4
Tor putitora (Ham-Buch.)
++
5.
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
++
6
O pabda (Ham-Buch.)
++
7.
Eutropichthys vacha (Ham-Buch.)
-H-
8
Sisor rhabdophorous (Ham-Buch.)
+
CONCLUSION
Besides the fish fauna, there are some other important
species in the Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, which are totally
piscivorous. Among them, the most prominent is the
freshwater dolphin (Platanista gangetica). Wakid and Biswas
(2002) have reported a residential population of P. gangetica
Anon. (1998): Report of the workshop on Conservation Assessment
and Management Plan (CAMP) for Freshwater Fishes of India.
Zoo Outreach organization and NBFGR, Lucknow, 22-26
September, 1997, 156 pp
Bhattacharjya, B.K., M. Choudhury, V.V. Sugunan, B. Acharjee &
U.C. Goswami (2001 ): Ichthyofaunistic resources of Assam with
a note on their sustainable utilization. Pp. 30-3 1 In: Integration
of fish biodiversity conservation and development of fisheries
in North-Eastern region through community participation. (Ed:
Mahanta, P.C.). NBFGR Publications, Lucknow.
Biswas, S.P. ( 1 998): Ecology of chars or river islands of the Brahmaputra
with special reference to the Fisheries. Final Technical report
submitted to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt,
of India, New Delhi, 55 pp.
Biswas, S.P., A. Baruah, D. Baruah & R.S.L. Mohan (1996): Present
status of aquatic fauna in the upper stretches of the Brahmaputra.
Bull. Life Sci. 6: 25-32.
Biswas, S.P. & S. Boruah (2000): Ecology of river dolphin ( Platanista
gangetica) in the Upper Brahmaputra. Hydrobiologia 430 : 97-
111.
Boruah, S. & S.P. Biswas (2002): Ecohydrology and fisheries of the
upper Brahmaputra basin. The Environmentalist 22: 119-131.
Dutta, S„ J.M. Dutta & M. Phukan (1998): Chakrashila Wildlife
Sanctuary: A documentation of its biodiversity. Nature s Beckon ,
45 pp.
Dutta Munshi, J.S. & M.P. Shrivastava (1988): Natural History of
Fishes and Systematics of Freshwater Fishes of India. Narendra
Publishing House, New Delhi. 382 pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India. A Handbook of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 475 pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): Freshwater fishes of the Indian region. Narendra
Publishing House, Delhi, India. 551 pp.
Kottelat, M & T. Whitten (1996): Freshwater biodiversity in Asia
with special reference to fish. World Bank Tech. Paper No. 343:
17-22. The World Bank, Washington, DC,
Mahanta, P.C., L.K. Tyagi, D. Kapoor & A.G. Ponniah (2001):
from this National Park, probably the densest and only resident
dolphin population in the entire Upper Brahmaputra basin. This
dolphin population is under threat from extensive fishing, which
affects the whole aquatic environment in the area. Therefore,
conservation of fish fauna in this National Park is essential not
only to sustain the fish diversity, but also the entire aquatic
ecosystem. Proper implementation of the Indian Fisheries Act,
and incentives for sustainable utilisation of the aquatic bodies
(Biswas and Boruah 2000) will improve the present status of the
fish fauna of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
for financial help, and the Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
authority and the forest staff for necessary permission and
help. Sincere thanks are due to the Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife
Conservation Society, especially to J. Abedin and S. Das for
constant help.
Integration of fish biodiversity conservation and development
of fisheries in north-eastern region: Issues and approach. Pp. I -
8. In: Integration of fish biodiversity conservation and
development of fisheries in North-Eastern region through
community participation. (Ed: Mahanta, P.C.). NBFGR
Publication, Lucknow.
Motwani, M.P., K.C. Jayaram & K.L. Sehgal (1962): Fish and fisheries
of Brahmaputra river system, Assam 1. Fish fauna with
observation on their zoogeographical significance. Trop Ecol.
3(1-2): 17-23.
Sarkar, U.K. & A.G Ponniah (2000): Evaluation of north-east Indian
fishes for their potential as cultivable, sport and ornamental
fishes along with their conservation and endemic status.
Pp. 11-30. In: Fish biodiversity of north-east India (Eds:
Ponniah, A.G & U.K. Sarkar). NBFGR-NATP Publ. 2, 228 pp.
Sarma, J.N & M. Phukan (2003): Erosion and change in the course of
the river Brahmaputra around Dibrugarh and Tinsukia district
of Assam, based on remote sensing data. Proc. ISPRS WG Vll/3
workshop and ISRS Annual Convention, 9-12 Dec., 2003,
Thirubhananthapuram (Abst.).
Sen, N. & S. Choudhury (1977): On a collection of fish from Manas
Wildlife Sanctuary (Kamrup-Assam) and adjacent areas.
Newsletter, ZSI 3(4): 199-204.
Sen. N. (2000): Occurrence, distribution and status of diversified fish
fauna of north-east India. Pp. 31-48. In: Fish biodiversity of
north-east India (Eds: Ponniah, A.G & U.K. Sarkar). NBFGR.
NATP Publ. 2, 228 pp.
Talwar, P.K. & A.GK. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and
adjacent countries. Oxford and 1BH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi. 1 158 pp.
Wakid, M. (2004): Studies on certain aspects of ecology and behaviour
of the river dolphin (Platanista gangetica ) in Dibru-Saikhowa
National Park, Assam. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Dibrugarh
University, Assam, 151 pp.
Wakid, A. & S.P. Biswas (2001): Anthropogenic pressures on aquatic
habitats: A case study in the Laika forest village of Dibru-
54
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK
Saikhowa National Park. Pp. 110-111. In: Proc. Integration of
fish biodiversity conservation through community participation
(Ed: Mahanta, PC ). NBFGR Publication, Lucknow.
Wakid, A. & S.P. Biswas (2002): Sustainable development of Aquatic
Resource of Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve of Eastern
Assam. In: Proc. National Seminar on Biodiversity Conservation
vis-a-vis Sustainable Development, 29-30“' August, 2002, North
Lakhimpur. Published by N.L. College. Pp. 49.
Yadava, Y.S. & R. Chandra (1994): Some threatened carps and catfishes
of Brahmaputra river system. Pp. 45-55. In: Threatened Fishes
of India (Eds: Dehadrai, P.V., P. Das & S.R Verma). Natcon
publication, Muzaffamagar, 4.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
55
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
56-60
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT, MANIPUR1
Laishram Kosygin2 and Waikhom Vishwanath3
'Accepted October, 2003
2 Loktak Development Authority, Lamphelpat 795 004, Manipur, India Entail laishrarnkosygin@yahoo corn
’Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India. Email: vnath54@yahoo co in
A survey of the fish fauna of the northern part of Ukhrul district of Manipur has been undertaken. A total of 44 species
belonging to 25 genera and 9 families have been recorded. The fauna is a mixture of endemic hill stream, Burmese,
Indochinese and widely distributed forms.
Key words: Hill stream fishes, Ukhrul district, Manipur
INTRODUCTION
The northern part of the Ukhrul district of Manipur is
drained by the Chalou (Chammu river) and Laniye rivers,
which originate at about 2,6 1 6 m above msl. The Laniye river,
which is formed mainly by three brooks, namely Akbong lok
(‘lok’ means brook in Manipuri), Masangkong lok and
Langdang Turel, meets the Zerry lok, which comes from
eastern side of Senapati district of the state. It then flows
northeast forming the state boundary between Manipur and
Nagaland. Later, the river meets the Tizu river of Nagaland
near Jessami. Further, Tizu river meets the Chalou river at
Akash Bridge. Important tributaries of the Chalou river are
Sirohi lok, Poi, Wanze, Ringnga, Momo, and Riori. Tizu river
finally joined the Chindwin river in Myanmar. In this part of
the state, the monsoon is quite prominent and maximum rainfall
occurs in June (Singh 1989). The soil of this region is red
loamy and slightly acidic.
Despite the occurrence and distribution of a vast
network of rivers and streams in this part of Ukhrul district,
which are totally isolated from the other rivers of the state,
there is no detailed information on its fish fauna. The earliest
available literature on the fishes of Ukhrul district was that of
Chaudhuri (1912). The report of Hora (1937) on the fishes of
upper Chindwin drainage was based on collections from the
Khunukong and Namya rivers, which are in eastern Ukhrul.
The present paper reports the fishes of the northern part of
Ukhrul district, which is drained by the Chalou and Laniye
rivers.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Fishes were collected from the hill streams of northern
part of Ukhrul district at six stations, namely Chingai,
Khamsom, Jessami, Thetsi, Tolloi and Tusom CV during 1 995-
1998 (Fig. 1). All the specimens are preserved in 10% formalin
and deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes
(MUMF). Fishes were identified following Jayaram ( 1981 ),
Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and other relevant literature. The
species were confirmed by comparing them with the type
and other specimens in the Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Species-wise distribution of fishes in different localities
in the northern part of Ukhrul district, Manipur, along with
the total number of specimens examined for taxonomic study
are given in Table 1 . The present collection includes 44 species
belonging to 25 genera, 9 families and 3 orders. The Order
Cypriniformes represented maximum number of species (33),
followed by Siluriformes (9) and Perciformes (2). Among the
25 genera, Garra showed maximum diversity, which was
represented by 8 species, the next genus being Schistura
with 5 species.
The collection included groups of fishes both with and
without specific devices for adaptation in torrential water.
Semiplotus , Schizothorax , Barilius, Tor, Neolissochilus,
Raiamas , Bangana , Brachydanio , and Danio are genera with
no special modifications, except for compression of body,
with rounding off and tapering towards the anterior and
posterior extremities. On the other hand, Glyptothorax,
Pseudecheneis, Garra, Myersglanis, and Schistura are genera
with special structural modifications. Similar observations in
conformity with those of Hora ( 1 922) were made in respect to
the adaptations of the fishes to torrential stream habitats. The
study sites have an altitudinal variation from 544 m above msl
to 2,6 1 6 m above msl. Accordingly, the gradient of water current
varies and also distribution of fishes. Species of genera such
as Barilius, Mastacembelus, Semiplotus, Neolissochilus, Tor,
Schizothorax, Poropuntius, Garra, Schistura, Channa,
Glyptothorax, Lepidocephalus, and Amblyceps were found
to be widely distributed. Some fishes like Brachydanio, Danio ,
Esomus and Puntius inhabit shallow waters with moderate to
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT
Table 1: Species-wise distribution of fishes in different localities in the northern part of Ukhrul district, Manipur
(N is the total number of specimens examined for taxonomic study)
Scientific Name
Local Name
Chingai
Distribution
Khamsom Jessami
Thetsi
Tolloi
Tusom CV
N
Remarks
Order: Cypriniformes
Family: Cyprinidae
Subfamily Cyprininae
1 Bangana dero (Hamilton)
Allah/Khabak
1
1
2
M
2 Neolissochilus
hexagonolepis (McClelland)
Khaicham/Ngara
1
2
2
4
.
7
16
FP, W
3 Neolissochilus stracheyi (Day)
Khaicham/Ngara
-
-
4
-
-
-
4
FP
4 Puntius sophore (Hamilton)
Khaiwonla/ Phabounga
-
-
-
2
-
-
2
-
5 Puntius ticto ticto (Hamilton)
Khaiwonla / Ngakha
4
-
-
-
3
-
7
-
6 Poropuntius burtoni ( Mukerji)
Rar/ Ngapeila/Aasho
-
5
1
5
-
-
11
FP, W
7 Semiplotus manipurensis
Khi-Lu-Nu/ Igella/ Ngakoi
5
2
-
14
-
-
21
FP, W
Vish & Kosygin
8 Torputitora (Hamilton)
Khihue/ Ngara
_
.
.
4
1
5
FP
9 Tor for (Hamilton)
Khihue/ Ngara
-
-
-
2
-
3
5
FP
Subfamily Rasborinae
10 Barilius barna (Hamilton)
Marei/ Abhishi/ Ngawa
1
1
11 Barilius ngawa Vish & Manoj.
Marei/ Abhishi/ Ngawa
-
1
4
16
-
10
31
FP,W
12. Brachydanio
Nunga
5
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
acuticephalus (Hora)
1 3. Danio aequipinnatus McClelland
Khipuli/ Nunga
4
2
6
14 Danio naganensis Chaudhuri
Khipuli/ Nunga
2
3
1
4
-
7
17
W,EMN
15. Esomus danricus (Hamilton)
Muhialei/ Ngasang
-
-
-
-
-
3
3
-
16. Raiamas guttatus (Day)
Abhishi/ Ngawathongong
-
-
-
1
-
-
1
M
Subfamily Schizothoracinae
17. Schizothorax richardsonii
Majong/ Vansu/ Sananga
1
3
3
2
9
FP, W
(Gray)
Subfamily Garrinae
18 Crossocheilus burmanicus Hora
Ungri/ Ngaroi
1
1
R
19. Garra compressus Kosygin
Masah/ Ngamusangum
-
3
-
-
-
-
3
-
& Vish
20 Garra elongata Vish & Kosygin
Masah/ Ngamusangum
4
4
21. Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray)
Matrao/ Ngamusangum
-
-
-
-
-
3
3
-
22 Garra kempi Hora
Matrao/ Ngamusangum
1
3
-
1
-
-
5
-
23. Garra lissorhynchus (McClelland) Matrao/ Ngamusangum
2
10
3
2
-
-
17
W
24. Garra naganensis Hora
Matrao/ Ngamusangum
4
3
-
9
1
1
18
w
25. Garra nasuta (McClelland)
Matrao/ Ngamusangum
1
1
2
3
-
-
7
w
26. Garra sp 1
Matrao/ Ngamusangum
-
-
-
-
-
2
2
-
Family: Balitoridae
Subfamily Balitorinae
27. Balitora brucei (Gray)
Lungvap
3
3
Subfamily Nemacheilinae
28 Schistura manipurensis
Moremlei/ Khirilei/ Ngatup
7
6
15
1
29
W, EMN
(Chaudhuri)
29 Schistura nagaensis (Menon)
Moremlei/ Khirilei/ Ngatup
15
5
2
2
24
NrM,
30. Schistura prashadi (Hora)
Moremlei/ Khirilei/ Ngatup
1
4
3
8
EMN
EMN
31 Schistura sikmaiensis (Hora)
Moremlei/ Khirilei/ Ngatup
-
-
-
5
-
-
5
-
32 Schistura vinciguerrae (Hora)
Moremlei/ Khirilei/ Ngatup
10
10
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
57
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT
Table 1: Species-wise distribution of fishes in different localities in the northern part of Ukhrul district, Manipur
(N is the total number of specimens) (contd )
Scientific Name Local Name Distribution N Remarks
Chingai Khamsom Jessami Thetsi Tolloi TusomCV
Family Cobitidae
Subfamily Cobitinae
33. Lepidocephaticthys guntea
(Hamilton)
Order: Siluriformes
Family Bagridae
Khutha/ Khirilei/ Ngakijou
1
2
2
3
8
W
34 Mystus bleekeri (Day)
Khithea/ Ngasep
-
-
-
1
-
-
1
-
Family: Siluridae
35. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
Khitu/ Ngaten
-
-
1
-
-
-
1
-
Family Amblycepidae
36 Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton)
Corelei/ Akhuterapu
3
7
1
6
-
8
25
W
Family Sisoridae
37. Glyptothorax manipurensis
Menon
Igesha/ Ngapang
-
3
3
4
-
-
10
EMN
38. Glyptothorax sp 1
Igesha/ Ngapang
-
-
-
1
-
-
1
-
39. Glyptothorax sp 2
Igesha/ Ngapang
-
-
-
1
-
-
1
-
40 Glyptothorax sp. 3
Igesha/ Ngapang
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
41 Myersglanis jayarami
Vish & Kosygin
Akhuterapu
-
“
8
"
-
-
8
-
42. Pseudecheneis sulcatus
McClelland
Order: Perciformes
Family: Channidae
Kaparong / Khikha
1
1
2
R
43. Channa orientalis (Bloch)
Kameikhi/Meitei Ngamu
3
7
-
3
6
-
19
W
Family: Mastacembelidae
44 Mastacembelus armatus
Marui/ Ngaril
5
6
2
2
3
9
27
W, FP
(Lacepede)
Note: EMN = Endemic in Manipur and Nagaland, Nr M = New record from Manipur; W = Widely distributed;
FP = High fishery potential in the study area
high current. In the first two genera, the lateral line perforation
curves downward to help the fishes to live in shallow waters.
Fishes that inhabited very strong current were found to belong
to genera Pseudecheneis , Balitora and Myersglanis. They
possess a series of transverse folds on the chest region,
which help to attach them to the substratum, so as to withstand
strong water currents. The species which were recorded only
at low altitude with slower water current represented the genera
Mystus, Ompok, and Crossocheilus. However, it is interesting
to observe that fishes like Bangana dero and Raiamas
guttatus were found only during June to August. It appears
these fish inhabit larger rivers (Chindwin river) in Myanmar
and migrate upstream during the monsoon.
The cobitid fish Schistura nagaensis, which was
known only from Nagaland (India) is collected here for the
first time from Manipur (Chindwin drainage). Menon (1987)
described the fish from Phodung river in Nagaland. He
distinguished it from its closest congeners
S. kangjupkhulensis Hora ( 1 92 1 ) in having 8 branched dorsal
fin rays (vs. 7 in S. kangjupkhulensis). Kottelat (1990)
tentatively considered 5. nagaensis as a synonym of
S. kangjupkhulensis , as he doubted the presence of 8
branched dorsal fin-rays in it. Further, he felt that the
taxonomic status of S. nagaensis should be verified after
examining fresh material. During the present study, 24
specimens of Schistura, which agree well with the description
58
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT
of S. nagaensis, were collected from three different localities
which are drained by the Tizu river. All the specimens were
found to have 8 branched dorsal fin-rays. Two specimens of
S. nagaensis , in the Zoological Survey of India (Regn. No. F
10061/1 and F 10067/2), which were collected with the type
specimen in 1927, were re-examined and found to have
8 branched dorsal fin-rays. Thus, the presence of 8 branched
dorsal fin-rays is a prominent character of 5. nagaensis
(Menon). The present collection also includes large,
commercially important fishes like Tor tor , Neolissochilns
hexagonolepis, Schizothorax richardsonii, Semiplotus
manipurensis, and Bangana dero, which inhabit the
Himalayan foothills. This shows the potential for hill stream
fishery in this part of the State.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
59
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT
Of the 44 species reported here, 26 are also distributed
in the Brahmaputra drainage, while 1 8 species are found only
in the Chindwin drainage of Manipur. The 18 species are
Balitora brucei, Brachydanio acuticephala, Crossocheilius
burmanicus, Neolissochilus stracheyi, Propuntius burtoni,
Raiamas guttatus, Schistura vinciguerrae, Schistura
rtagaensis, Schistura prashadi, Barilius sp. Garra
compressus, G. elongata, Garra sp. Glyptothorax sp.l,
Glyptothorax sp.2, Glyptothorax sp.3, Myersglanis jayarami,
and Semiplotus manipurensis. The restricted distribution of
these fishes shows that they evolved in the system
comparatively late during the orogenic movements in this
part of the world At present there is no water connection
between the Chindwin-Irrawady and Barak-Brahmaputra
drainages as they are entirely separated by mountain ranges
(Chaudhuri 1919). However, the widely distributed fishes were
probably distributed when there was water connection
between the Tsangpo and the Chindwin river as per the post-
Himalayan river system hypothesis by Gregory ( 1 925). When
a connection between Tsangpo and Ganga-Brahmaputra was
established, the fishes might have got distributed to other
parts of the country.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. K.C. Jayaram, Jt. Director (Retd.),
Zoological Survey of India (ZS1) for literature and
encouragement in this work. We are also grateful to Dr. J.R.B.
Alfred, Director, ZSI for permission to examine the types and
other specimens in the Indian Museum and to the staff
members of the Fish Section of ZSI for their co-operation
during the first author’s study in the Museum.
REFERENCES
Chaudhuri, B L. (1912): Description of some new species of freshwater
fishes from North India. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 437-444, pi. 38-41.
Chaudhuri, B.L. (1919): Report on a small collection of fish from
Putao (Hkamti Long) on the northern frontier of Burma. Rec.
Indian Mus 16 (4): 271-282.
Gregory, J.W. (1925): The evolution of the river system of south-
eastern Asia. Scottish Geogr J. 41: 1 29- 141.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some observations
on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 165-214.
Hora, S.L. (1922): Structural modifications in the fish of mountain
torrents. Rec. Indian Mus. 24: 31-61.
Hora, S.L. (1937): On a small collection offish from the upper Chindwin
drainage. Rec. Indian Mus. 39: 331-338.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981 ): Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Burma, and Sri Lanka. Flandbook, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, 475 pp.
Kottelat, M. (1990): Indochinese nemacheilines, A revision of
nemacheiline loaches (Pisces: Cypriniformes) of Thailand,
Burma, Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam. Verlag Dr. Friedrich
Pfeil, Miinchen, 262 pp, figs. 1-180.
Menon, A.GK. (1987): The fauna of India and adjacent countries,
Pisces Vol 4, No. 1 . Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 259
pp, 16 pis.
Singh, T.B. (1989): Population dynamics, biomass and secondary
productivity of above ground insects in the sub-tropical forest
ecosystem at Shiroy hills, Manipur Ph.D. Thesis, Manipur
University, 326 pp.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and
adjacent countries. I, Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi. 541 pp.
60
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
61-65
VALIDITY AND REDESCRIPTION OF GLYPTOTHORAX MANIPURENSIS MENON
AND RECORD OF G. SINENSE (REGAN) FROM INDIA1
Laishram Kosygin2 and Waikhom Vishwanath3
'Accepted December, 2003
2Loktak Development Authority, Lamphel 795 004, Manipur, India. Email: laishramkosygin@yahoo.com
'Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India. Email: vnath54@yahoo.co.in
Glyptothorax manipurensis Menon, originally described from Barak-Brahmaputra drainage of Manipur (India), has
hitherto been considered a junior synonym of G. sinense (Regan). Based on the type specimens and 7 specimens
collected recently from Ukhrul district, Manipur (Chindwin drainage), G. manipurensis Menon is redescribed here as a
valid species. It is distinguished from G. sinense in having a more broadly rounded snout, broader head, wider teeth band,
origin of rayed dorsal fin equidistant between snout tip and adipose dorsal fin (vs. nearer snout tip than adipose dorsal
fin), a caudal fin spotted or dusky with black spots (vs. plain) and granulated skin (vs. smooth). G. sinense (Regan)
hitherto known from China and Myanmar is recorded here for the first time from India. The distribution of both the
species is discussed.
Key words: New record, redescription, Glyptothorax sinense, G. manipurensis
INTRODUCTION
Menon (1954) described G. manipurensis from Karong
(Brahmaputra basin), Manipur, India. He distinguished it from
its closest congener G. sinense (Regan) by its broader head
and presence of black colour at the base of the dorsal fin,
adipose dorsal fin and caudal fin. Misra (1976) and Talwar
and Jhingran (1991) considered G. manipurensis as a junior
synonym of G. sinense and extended the distribution of the
latter to India. However, Jayaram (1979) recognised two
subspecies within this species, namely G. sinense sinense
(Regan) and G. sinense manipurensis Menon. Kosygin and
Vishwanath (1998) reported G. sinense manipurensis for the
first time from Nagaland (Chindwin drainage), India.
Regan (1908) described Glyptothorax sinense based
on a single specimen collected from Tungting, China. Tung-
f ing (= Tungting or Dongting) lake is in the valley of the
Yangzi (=Yangtze) river in the northern Hunan province in
southeast China. Mukerji (1933) reported the species for the
first time from the Mali-Hka river. He remarked that J.R. Norman
confirmed the specimen, which is in the Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata(ZSI F 1 1444/1), asG sinense after comparing
it with the type specimen in the British Museum of Natural
History.
In the present study, eight specimens of Glyptothorax
were collected from the Ukhrul district of Manipur, which is
drained by the Chindwin-lrrawaddy drainage. Out of these,
seven specimens agree with the description of G. manipurensis
Menon, while one specimen agrees with G. sinense (Regan).
In the present paper, G. sinense is reported for the first time
from India and G. manipurensis Menon, 1954 is redescribed
as a valid species.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Specimens collected during the present study have been
deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes
(MUMF). Specimens of the present collection were compared
for confirmation with the type and other specimens of
Glyptothorax in the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata (ZSI).
Measurements and counts follow Jayaram (1981).
Measurements were made with dial calipers (Mitutoyo, Japan)
to the nearest 0. 1 mm, and body proportions are expressed as
percentage of standard length (SL) or head length (HL).
Glyptothorax manipurensis Menon 1 954
Glyptothorax manipurensis Menon 1954, Rec. Indian
Mus. 52 (1): 23 (type locality: Barak river at Karong, Manipur).
Glyptothorax sinense manipurensis : Jayaram, 1979,
Occ. Paper, Zool. Surv. India , 14: 1-62.
Material examined: ZSI F 738/2, Holotype, 74.5 mm SL,
Barak R. (Brahmaputra basin), Karong, Naga hills, Manipur,
India, Coll. A.G.K. Menon and party, February, 1953; ZSI F
743/2, 1 ex., 54.0 mm SL, Paratype (Figured in original
description), same data as Holotype. MUMF 2027, 1 ex.,
89.0 mm SL, Laniye river near Jessami (Chindwin basin),
Manipur-Nagaland state border, India, Coll. L. Kosygin,
February 28, 1 994; MUMF 2 1 03-2 1 04, 2 exs„ 80.5-90.0 mm SL,
Laniye river near Jessami, Manipur-Nagaland state border,
India, Coll. L. Kosygin, May 31, 1994; MUMF 2190-2193,
4 exs., 74.0-108.0 mm SL, Tizu River (Chindwin basin), Akash
Bridge, near Thetsi, Manipur-Nagaland state border, India,
Coll. L. Kosygin, August 15,1994.
Diagnosis: A species of Glyptothorax with the
VALIDITY, REDESCRIPTION AND A RECORD OF GLYPTOTHORAX FROM INDIA
following combination of characters: Head large, broad (width
2 1 .1- 22.8% SL, 86.5-94.4% HL); broadly rounded snout (length
11.1- 12.9% SL, 46.1-50.0% HL); rayed dorsal fin origin
equidistant between snout tip and adipose dorsal fin;
predorsal length 34.0-36.2% SL; occipital process does not
reach basal bone of rayed dorsal fin; dorsal spine serrated
posteriorly; 8-9 branched anal fin rays; granulated skin.
Description: Morphometric data are shown in Table 1
and general body shape in Fig 1. Rayed dorsal fin with
1 simple and 5-6 branch rays. Anal fin with 2 simple and 8-9
branched rays. Caudal fin forked, with 17 principal rays.
Pectoral fin with one simple and 9 branched rays. Pelvic fin
with 6 rays. Lateral line distinct. Body elongate, compressed
dorso-ventrally, from head to anal fin. Caudal peduncle
slightly compressed laterally. Head wide, almost as long as
wide. Snout broadly rounded. Eye moderate, not visible from
ventral side, in posterior half of head. Mouth inferior,
horizontal, lips papillated. Teeth villiform, those on upper jaw
form a wide, continuous band, while band in lower jaw is
interrupted in the middle. Barbels four pairs. Maxillary barbels
reach middle of pectoral fin base. Outer mandibular barbels
reach upper angle of gill opening. Inner mandibular barbels
reach anterior margin of thoracic adhesive apparatus. Nasal
barbels reach anterior margin of orbit. Occipital process
distinctly separated from basal bone of dorsal fin. Thoracic
adhesive apparatus triangular, longer than broad with slight
depression in the middle (Fig. 2). Dorsal spine strong, osseous,
serrated posteriorly, its origin equidistant between snout tip
and adipose dorsal fin. Pectoral fins with an internally
denticulated spine. Paired fins non-plaited. Skin granulated.
Proportional measurements in percentage |mean
(range) ±standard deviation): Body depth 2 1 .2 ( 1 6.9-25.0 ±2.6)
of SL, head length 24.6 (22.7-25.9 ±0.9), head width 2 1 .8 (2 1. 1 -
22.8 ±0.6), snout length 119(11 . 1-12.9 ±0.6), caudal peduncle
length 20.0 (18.1-22. 1 ±1.3), caudal peduncle height 9.2 (8.3-
1 0. 1 ±0.6), predorsal length 35.1 (34.0-36.5 ±0.9), dorsal fin
height 20.5 ( 1 9.4-22.9 ±1 . 1 ), dorsal spine length 1 8.2 ( 1 6.2-22.9
±2.2), adipose dorsal fin length 15.3 (12.3-1 8.9 ±2.2), adipose
Table 1 Comparison of proportional measurements of Glyptothorax mampurensis Menon and G. sinense Regan
G mampurensis
G sinense
ZSI F 738/2
Holotype
(Brahmaputra
basin)
ZSI F 743/2
Paratype
(Brahmaputra
basin)
MUMF 2027, 2103,
2104, 2190- 2193
Mean (range)
(Chindwin basin)
sd
ZSI F 11444/1
(Irrawaddy
basin)
MUMF 2244
(Chindwin
basin)
Standard Length
74.5
54.0
87.3 (74 0 - 108 0)
11.2
102 0
98.3
In % of SL
Head length
24.2
25 9
24 4 (22 7 - 25 7)
0.9
22.1
234
Head width
22 8
22 2
21 6 (21 1 - 22 3)
04
18 1
198
Snout length
12.1
12 9
11.7 (11.1 - 12.5)
0.5
10.3
10.7
Body depth
19.5
18 5
21 8 (16 9 - 25.0)
2.7
15 7
21.8
Caudal peduncle length
18.1
18 5
20 5 (19.2 - 22.1)
1.0
206
20.7
Caudal peduncle height
10 1
8.3
9.2 (8 7 - 10.1)
0.5
6.4
9.7
Predorsal length
36 2
36.1
34 8 (34 0 - 36.2)
0.7
33.8
32 6
Dorsal fin height
20 8
20 4
20 5(19 4-22 9)
1.3
17.6
20.0
Dorsal spine length
18.8
17 6
18 2 (16.2 - 22 9)
2.6
13 2
16.3
Adipose dorsal fin length
134
13 3
15.9 (12.3 - 18 9)
2.2
12.7
18.1
Adipose dorsal fin height
4 3
4.0
5.3 (4 6 - 5 8)
0.5
2.9
5.5
Pectoral fin length
22.1
22.2
23 3 (21.7 - 25 0)
1 3
21 6
23 2
Anal fin base length
14.8
13.1
14.3 (12 9 - 15 7)
1.1
11 8
15.5
Anal fin height
17 4
180
18 5(16 2- 19 2)
1.1
16.7
17.3
Caudal fin length
25 5
-
24 4 (22 3 28 1)
2.3
-
236
In % of HL
Head height at occiput
61.1
60.7
65 5(60.5- 73.9)
4.9
53.3
63.5
Head width
94 4
86 5
88 4 (86 4 - 93 9)
2.6
82 2
84 8
Eye diameter
13.9
14.3
13.1 (109- 16 3)
2.0
8.9
14.8
Inter-orbital space
27 8
22 8
26 2 (22 5 - 28 3)
2.1
28 9
26 1
Adhesive apparatus length
639
-
59 6(56 4-65.2)
30
62 2
64 8
Adhesive apparatus width
44 4
-
48 1 (43 6 - 54 3)
4.0
48 9
55 2
Snout length
50.0
50 0
47 9 (46 1 - 50 0)
1 2
48 8
46 1
In % of caudal peduncle length
Caudal peduncle height
55 5
45 0
44 4 (41.2 - 51.4)
3.7
33 3
466
62
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
VALIDITY, REDESCRIPTION AND A RECORD OF GLYPTOTHORAX FROM INDIA
Fig. 1: Glyptothorax manipurensis Menon, lateral view (MUMF 2190, 108.0 mm SL)
Fig. 2: G. manipurensis Menon,
ventral view
(MUMF 21 90, 108.0 mm SL)
Fig. 3: Comparison of head shape:
a. G. manipurensis (MUMF 21 90, 1 08.0 mm SL);
b. G. sinense (MUMF 2244, 98.3 mm SL)
Fig. 4: Glyptothorax sinense (Regan) (MUMF 2244, 98.3 mm SL)
dorsal fin height 4.9 (4.0-5. 8 ±0.7), pectoral fin length 23.0
(21.7-25.0 ±1.2), ventral fin length 16.3 (14.8- 17.4 ±0.7), anal
fin base length 14.2 (12.9- 15.7 ±1 . 1), anal fin height 1 8.3 (16.2-
19.2 ±1.0), caudal fin length 24.6 (22.3-28.1 ±2.1). Head width
88.9 (86.5-94.4 ±3.1) of HL, head height at occiput 64.5 (60.5-
73.9 ±4.7 ), eye diameter 13.3 (10.9-16.3 ±1.8). interorbital space
26.0 (22.5-28.3 ±2.3), snout length 48.4 (46.1-50.0 ±1.4),
adhesive apparatus length 60.1 (56.4-65.2 ±3.3), adhesive
apparatus width 47.7 (43.6-54.3 ±4.0). Caudal peduncle height
45.9 (41 .2-55.5 ±4.9) of its length.
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
63
VALIDITY, REDESCRIPTION AND A RECORD OF GLYPTOTHORAX FROM INDIA
Colour: Body grey to olivaceous dark brown with dark
patches at the base of rayed dorsal fin, adipose dorsal fin,
and caudal fins. Rayed dorsal fin with a broad longitudinal
black band in the middle. Caudal fin is dusky or with black
dots.
Distribution: india: Barak R., (Brahmaputra basin),
Karong, Senapati district, Chalou R., (Chindwin basin), Ukhrul
district, Manipur.
Remarks: Menon (1954) distinguished Glyptothorax
manipurensis from its closest congener G. sinense by its
broader head and presence of black colour at the base of
dorsal fin, adipose dorsal fin and caudal fin. In the present
study, the first character holds true (Fig. 3), but the second
character seems to be misleading because the specimens of
G. sinense also have similar faint dark patches, even though
the markings are more distinct in G. manipurensis. He further
erroneously described the nature of the skin as smooth.
However, in the present study, the type specimen of the fish
in the ZSI and specimens collected from the Chindwin basin
were examined and found to have granulated skin in all the
specimens. Based on the present study, G. manipurensis is
distinguished from G. sinense in having granulated skin (vs.
smooth), broadly rounded snout (vs. slightly conical snout),
broader head (head width 21.1 -22.8% SL vs. 1 8. 1 ; 86.5-94.4%
HL vs. 82.2), longer snout (1 1 . 1-12.5% SL vs. 10.3), origin of
rayed dorsal fin equidistant between snout tip and adipose
dorsal fin (vs. nearer snout tip than adipose dorsal fin), and a
caudal fin spotted or dusky with black spots (vs. plain). The
fish is similar to G. trilineatus (Blyth) in having granulated
skin on the body and head. However, G. manipurensis is easily
distinguished from G. trilineatus in having a body without
any longitudinal bands on its body (vs. three longitudinal
bands on the body of the latter). G. manipurensis is so far
known only from Manipur and Nagaland in India.
Other material examined: Glyptothorax sinense: ZSI
F 1 1444/1, 1 ex., Phungin Hka, Myitkyina district, Myanmar.
G. burmanicus: ZSI F 10877/1, 1 ex., Myitkyina district,
Myanmar, Prashad& Mukherji. G cavia : MUMF2500, 3 ex.,
Manipur, India. G. trilineatus: ASB (Asiatic Society of Bengal)
Cat. 581, 1 ex., paratype, Tenasserim, Myanmar.
G. pectinopterus: ZSI F 216/2, 1 ex., Kangra valley, India.
G. gracile: ZSI F 2479/2, 1 ex., Kameng, India. G. saisii: ZSI F
25837, holotype, Parasnath hills, India. G. telchitta: ZSI F
239/2, 1 ex., Darbhanga, India. G. prashadi: ZSI F 10845/2,
1 ex., Sritamarat, Siam.
Glyptothorax sinense (Regan, 1908)
Glyptosternon sinense Regan, 1908, Ann. Mag. nat.
Hist. (8)1 1 : 1 10 (type locality: Tungting, China).
Glyptothorax sinense: Mukerji, 1933, J. Bombay Nat
Hist. Soc., 36: 280, pi. 2, fig. 1 (Phungting Hka, tributary of
Mali Hka River, Upper Burma).
Material examined: ZSI F 1 1444/1, 1 ex., 102.0 mm,
Phungin Hka, tributary of Mali Hka river, Myitkyina district,
Myanmar, Coll. Lt. Col. R. W. Burton, no date. MUMF 2244,
1 ex., 98.3 mm SL, India: Tizu River (Chindwin basin), Akash
Bridge near Thetsi, Manipur-Nagaland state border, India,
Coll. L. Kosygin, August 7, 1995.
Diagnosis: A species of Glyptothorax with the
following combination of characters: Head small, conical
(width 18.1-19.8% SL; 82.2-84.8% HL); more or less pointed
snout (length 10.3-1 0.7% SL); dorsal fin origin nearer snout
tip than adipose dorsal fin; occipital process does not reach
basal bone of rayed dorsal fin; dorsal spine serrated
posteriorly; 9-10 branched anal fin rays; soft and smooth
skin.
Description: Morphometric data are given in Table 1
and general body shape in Fig. 4. Rayed dorsal fin with I
simple and 6 branch rays. Anal fin with 2 simple and 9 branched
rays. Caudal fin forked, with 17 principal rays. Pectoral fin
with one simple and 9 branched rays. Pelvic fin with 6 rays.
Lateral line distinct. Body elongate. Head depressed, conical,
longer than broad. Snout broadly rounded. Eye of moderate
size, almost in the middle of head, not visible from ventral
side. Mouth inferior, upper jaw longer, lips papillated. Four
pairs of barbels. Maxillary barbels with broad bases, reaching
posterior base of pectoral spine. Outer mandibular barbels
reach origin of pectoral fin. Inner mandibular barbels much
shorter than outer mandibular. Nasal barbels reach anterior
margin of orbit. Nostril closer to snout tip than to orbit.
Occipital process not reaching basal bone of dorsal fin.
Thoracic adhesive apparatus rhomboidal, considerably longer
than broad, without central pit. Dorsal spine strong, osseous,
serrated posteriorly. Its origin nearer to snout tip than caudal
fin base. Pectoral spine strong, osseous, with 10 sharp
denticulations along the posterior edge. Adipose dorsal fin
high, its origin opposite anal fin origin. Inter-dorsal wide,
with a series of visible small spines below the skin. Skin
smooth.
Colour: Body greenish-brown with irregular dark
patches. Prominent deep brown patches present at the base
of rayed dorsal fin, adipose dorsal fin and another less
prominent one on caudal fin base. Dorsal fin with one broad
black band. Other fins pale white.
Distribution: india: Nagaland, Tizu River (Chindwin
basin), Manipur; Myanmar: Mali Hka river (Irrawaddy basin);
China: Dongting lake, Yangtze river basin.
Remarks: The present specimen of G. sinense collected
from Manipur-Nagaland border (Chindwin basin) agrees with
64
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
VALIDITY, REDESCRIPTION AND A RECORD OF GL YPTOTHORAX FROM INDIA
the description of the species. However, while re-examining
the Burmese specimen in the ZSI, differences were found in
the body proportions and number of branched anal fin-rays,
even though they possess the specific characters of G sinense.
Hora (1923) remarked that the members of the genus
Glyptothorax are still in the process of adaptation to life in
hill streams, and the specific characters in them have not yet
stabilised. The variation in these two specimens may be due
to the ecological factors of the different habitats that they
inhabit, and they may be in the process of adaptation to their
respective environments.
However, the occurrence of Glyptothorax sinense in
two river basins, Yangtze drainage in China and Chindwin
system in India and Myanmar, which are quite far apart, needs
confirmation. As the type of G. sinense is not available for
comparison, the identification of the species is based only on
Mukerji’s (1933) statement, Misra’s (1976) description and
comparison with Mukerji’s collection of the fish from
Myanmar (reported to have been compared with the only
type in the British Museum by J R. Norman). The fish from
Manipur is presently placed under G. sinense , which is being
reported for the first time from India in this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of
India (ZSI) for granting permission to re-examine the type
and other specimens in the museum.
REFERENCES
Hora, S.L. (1923): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum, 5. On the
composite genus Glyptosternum McClelland. Rec. Indian Mus 25:
1-44.
Jayaram, K.C (1979): Aid to the identification of the sisorid fishes of
India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh. 3, Sisoridae.
Zool. Surv India Occ. Pap 14: 1-62.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Burma, and Sri Lanka. Handbook, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, 475 pp
Kosygin, L. & W. Vishwanath (1998): A Report on Fish diversity of
Tizu River, Nagaland with some new records. Ecol. Env. & Cons. 4
(4): 243-247.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observation on the fish fauna of
Manipur state. Rec Indian Mus. 52: 21-26.
Misra, K.S. (1976): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries,
Pisces 3. Zoological Survey of India. 367 pp.
Mukerji, D.D. (1933): Report on Burmese fishes collected by Lt. Col.
R. W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali-Hka River of
the Myitkyina district (upper Burma) J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc.
36(4): 812-831.
Regan, C.T. (1908): Description of three new freshwater fishes from
China. Ann Mag. Nat. Hist. [Ser. 8] 1(1): 109-110.
Tal war, P.K. & A .G Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of India and adjacent
countries, 1, Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 541 pp.
J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
65
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
66-68
DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN KUTTANAD RICE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM, KERALA1
A.V. SUDHIKUMAR2' 3 AND P.A. SEBASTIAN2 4
'Accepted December, 2003
"Division of Arachnology, Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi, Kerala 682 013, India
"Email: avsudhi@rediffmail com
■’Email: drpothalil@rediffmail com
The seasonal fluctuation in population of some important families of spiders in a rice agro-ecosystem of Kuttanad was
studied during 1999 to 2001 by standard sweeping and handpicking method. The data was analyzed for species
diversity, evenness and richness. Out of the four sampling sites, site-2 in upper Kuttanad exhibited maximum species
diversity. A total of 22 species of 14 genera, from 8 families, were reported during the study period.
Key words: Kuttanad. rice, spider, diversity, evenness, richness
INTRODUCTION
Spiders are very important biological control agents in
a rice agro-ecosystem and play a major role as defenders by
suppressing the pest population to a safe level. This supports
the concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in modern
agriculture. Presently there is a need to reduce pesticide usage
on the world's crops and optimize natural biological control,
for which full investigation of the means by which spiders
control pest abundance is long overdue. More than 600
arthropod pest species regularly destroy more than 10% of
our agricultural production (Samways 1997). Total reliance
on synthetic pesticides entails severe and costly health,
environmental and even pest management side effects
(Newsome 1970). Spiders, despite their ubiquity and high
densities, have not received due recognition as pest control
agents, although their treatment in several recent compendia
is encouraging (Toft and Riedel 1 995). Over the last 35 years,
field experiments have demonstrated that spiders can reduce
insect populations and crop damage (Ito et al. 1962).
Study of spider community and species diversity is a
pre-requisite to assess the role of spiders as biological control
agents in any ecosystem. Spiders are known to play an
important role in suppressing populations of Green Leaf
Hopper (GLH), Brown Plant Hopper (BPH), White-backed
Plant Hopper (WPH), and also certain dipterans,
lepidopterans, coleopterans and orthopterans on paddy
(Barrion 1980). Very little information is available on the spider
population of the rice ecosystem in Kuttanad, except from
the work of Sebastian and Chacko (1994), and Sudhikumar
and Sebastian (200 1 ). This work was carried out to study the
population fluctuations and to estimate diversity and richness
of spider species in Kuttanad rice agro-ecosystem.
STUDY AREA
Kuttanad is rightly called the “rice bowl” of Kerala,
contributing nearly 20% of the total rice production of the
State. The region extends from 9° 1 7' N to 9° 40' N and 76° 1 9' E
to 76° 33' E. It is separated from the Arabian Sea by a narrow
strip of land. Kuttanad is a deltaic formation of four river
systems, namely Meenachil, Pamba, Manimala, and
Achencovil, together with the low-lying areas in and around
Vembanad lake. Most of the vast expanse of this region lies
below mean sea level, is water logged almost throughout the
year, submerged during the monsoon, with saline water
ingression during the summer. It consists of 53,639 hectares
distributed among 1086 units where rice is cultivated. It is a
warm, humid region with fairly uniform temperature throughout
the year, ranging from 21 °C to 36 °C. Humidity is generally
very high throughout the year. The average annual rainfall is
c. 300 cm, of which about 83% is received during the monsoon.
The study was undertaken during the kharif (additional crop)
and rabi (puncha) seasons (November to March and June to
September respectively) of 1 999, 2000 and 200 1 . Spiders were
collected from four sampling sites of Kuttanad: Site-1
(Krishnapuram) and Site-2 (Pallikoottuma) from upper
Kuttanad and Site-3 (Nedumudy) and Site-4 (Vellisrakka) from
lower Kuttanad.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Survey of Spiders
Spiders were collected fortnightly from four sampling
sites during June, 1 999 to March, 200 1 . Collections were made
by the standard sweeping and handpicking methods. The
collected specimens were killed in chloroform and preserved
temporarily in 70% alcohol. These were sorted out by placing
them in a petri dish containing 70% alcohol under a Stereo
Zoom microscope (Leica MS 5); adult males and females were
identified up to species level with the help of available literature
(Tikader and Malhotra 1980; Tikader and Bal 1981; Tikader
and Biswas 1981). Immature spiders were identified up to
generic levels.
DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN KUTTANAD RICE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM
Quantitative estimation of species and individuals of
spiders in different stages of crop growth was made, using
the data derived from field surveys. Species diversity (H) was
computed based on Shannon-Wiener formula (Kamal et al.
1992). Evenness (J) and richness (ma) were computed
according to Pielou (1975).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present work, based on a critical study of different
spider families, revealed that different groups were active at
different times of the season, showing their prey preference
at different stages of crop growth.
A total of 2708 spiders under 8 families, 1 4 genera and
22 species were collected during the study period. Of these,
24.03% of the spiders belonged to Family Tetragnathidae,
representing genera Dyschiriognatha and Tetragnatha.
Tetragnatha listeri was the most abundant species from this
family. Family Araneidae contributed 23.52% and was
represented by the genus Araneus, Neoscona , and Cyclosa.
Neoscona pavida was the most abundant species of this
family. Family Theridiidae contributed 21.27% and was
represented by the genera Phycosoma and Theridion. Family
Lycosidae contributed 18.57% and was represented by the
genera Evippa, Hippasa and Pardosa. Others belonged to
families Linyphiidae, Oxyopidae and Sparassidae.
The entire study was conducted during four different
crop seasons. These include two rabi seasons (June-
September) and two kharif (November-March) seasons. The
first was from June 1999 to September 1999. Seven families
were reported during this collection. The majority belonged
to Family Araneidae (26.40%); other major families reported
were Tetragnathidae (21.80%), Theridiidae (20.91%),
Lycosidae (17.98%) and Salticidae (9.69%). The second
season was from November 1 999 to February 2000. A total of
588 spiders were collected during this period. The family
composition reported was: Theridiidae 22.95%, Araneidae
22.44%, Lycosidae 21.42%, Tetragnathidae 18.53% and
Salticidae 10.03%. The third season was from June 2000 to
September 2000. A total of 663 spiders were collected during
this period. The family composition reported was:
Tetragnathidae 30.92%, Lycosidae 19.91%, Araneidae 18.85%,
Theridiidae 1 8.70% and Salticidae 9.35%o. The fourth season
was from December 2000 to March 200 1 . A total of 673 spiders
were collected during this period. The family composition
reported was: Araneidae 25.70%, Tetragnathidae 24.66%,
Theridiidae 22.73%, Lycosidae 15.45%and Salticidae 10.10%.
Analysis of Evenness, Species Diversity and Richness
Evenness, diversity and richness of spider species in
four sampling sites are given in Table 1. The diversity index
was highest (0.979) at Site-2 and lowest (0.488) at Site-3.
Diversity was calculated with the help of two factors, species
richness and evenness. Considerable discussion is going on
about the measurement of diversity, which is directly correlated
with the stability of the ecosystems, being higher in
biologically controlled systems, and lower in polluted
ecosystems (Rosenberg 1976).
Table 1 Total number of individuals in all species (N), number of
species (S), evenness index (J), diversity index (H) and species
richness index (ma) of four sampling sites during the study period
Sampling Sites
N
S
J
H
ma
Site-1
490
19
1.042
0 858
6 69
Site-2
460
21
1.113
0 979
7.51
Site-3
508
11
0 861
0488
369
Site-4
303
12
1.063
0689
4 43
The evenness index of Site-2 was highest (1.113) and
that of Site-3 lowest (0.861) (Table l).As evenness and species
diversity are directly proportional, they showed the same
pattern of expression in the study (Pearson 1977).
In case of species richness, site-2 had the highest index
value and site-3 the lowest value (Table 1). A total of 950
spiders of 21 species were collected from upper Kuttanad.
The values of J (1 . 1 13), H (0.979) and ma (7.51 ) from upper
Kuttanad were slightly higher than lower Kuttanad. According
to Boecklen and Simberloff (1986), habitat heterogeneity, in
addition to area, is an important determinant of species
richness.
According to Usher (1986), diversity is the most
frequently adopted criterion for evaluation of conservation
schemes. Diversity indices are directly correlated with the
stability of the ecosystem and will be high in biologically
controlled systems. All diversity indices have limitations
because they attempt to combine a number of variables that
characterise community structure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Rev. Fr. A.J. Saviance CM1,
Principal, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Cochin for providing
laboratory facilities. The first author is grateful to CSIR-SRF
for financial assistance.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
67
DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN KUTTANAD RICE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM
REFERENCES
Barrion, A.T. (1980): Taxonomy and Bionomics of spiders in Philippine
Rice Agroecosystem: Foundation for future biological control
efforts. Proc. of the Nat. Conf. Pest Control Council of
Philippines 11\ 1-39.
Boecklen, W.J. & D. Simberloff (Eds.) (1986): Area based extinction
models. Conservation in dynamics of extinction. John Wiley
and Sons, New York. 280 pp.
Ito, Y., K. Miyashitha & K. Sekiguchi (1962): Studies on the predators
of the rice crop insect pest using the insecticidal check method.
Jap. J. Ecol. 12: 1-11.
Kamal, N.Q., A. Begum & V. Biswas (1992): Studies on the abundance
of spiders in rice ecosystem. J. Ins. Sci. 5: 30-32.
Newsome, L.D. (1970): The end of an era and future prospects for
insect control. Proc. Tall Timbers Conf. 3: 117-136.
Pearson, D. (1977): A pantropical comparison of bird community:
Structure of six low land rain forest sites. Condor 79: 232-244.
Pielou, E.C. (Eds.) (1975): Ecological Diversity. John Wiley and Sons,
New York. 165 pp.
Rosenberg, R. (1976): Benthic faunal dynamics during succession
following pollution abatement in a Swedish estuary. Oikos. 27:
414-427.
Samways, M.J. (1997): Classical biological control and biodiversity
conservation: What risks are we prepared to accept? Biodiversity
Conserv. 6: 1309-1316.
Sebastian, P.A. & Elizabeth Chacko (1994): Studies on the predatory
spiders of paddy fields from Kuttanad. Proc. 6'h Kerala Sc.
Congress. 6: 377-378.
Sudhikumar, A.V. & P.A. Sebastian (2001): Studies on the spider fauna
in rice field of Kuttanad, Kerala. Proc. Biocontrol Pest
Management for Quality Crop Protection in the Current
Millennium. I: 31-32.
Tikader, B.K. & A. Bal (1981): Studies on some orb weaving spiders
of the genera Neoscona and Araneus of the family Araneidae
(Argiopidae) from India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. 24: 1-60.
Tikader, B.K. & B. Biswas (1981): Spider fauna of Calcutta and vicinity.
Rec. zool. Surv. India. 30: 1-149.
Tikader, B.K. & M.S. Malhotra (1980): Fauna of India: Araneae.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 443 pp.
Toft, S. & W. Riedel (Eds.) (1995): Arthropod natural enemies in
arable land. I, Density, spatial heterogeneity and dispersal. Aarhus.
Univ. Press, Denmark. 314 pp.
Usher, M.B. (1986): Wildlife conservation and evaluation: Attributes,
criteria and values in wildlife conservation and evaluation.
Chapman and Hall, London. 394 pp.
68
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
69-74
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
THREE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CLADARCTIA KODA
(ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) FROM INDIA1
Amritpal S. Kaleka2
'Accepted August, 2002
department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India. Email: amritpalkaleka@indiatimes.com
Three new species of genus Cladarctia Koda C. hcmsraji, C. discocellulatus and C. bharrnourensis are described from
India. A key to Indian species of this genus is provided.
Key words: New species, Cladarctia, genitalia
INTRODUCTION
Koda ( 1 988) erected a new genus Cladarctia on a single
Indian species Euprepria quadriramosa Kollar. He
distinguished the genus Cladarctia from the closely allied
genus Estigmene Hiibner on the basis of its male genitalic
features like protuberate uncus and simple valva with well
developed costa. As many as eight representatives of three
species have been collected from different localities of
Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The species could not
be identified from literature (Hampson 1894, 1901) or from
National Museums and the Natural History Museum, London.
However, they completely conform to the characters of genus
Cladarctia and are closely allied to its type species. These
three distinct species are named Cladarctia hansraji n. sp.,
C. discocellulatus n. sp. and C. bharrnourensis n. sp. in the
present communication and have been described in detail.
The three species possess similar maculation and wing
pattern, but can be easily distinguished on the basis of
genitalic features.
Cladarctia hansraji sp. nov.
(Figs 1, 4 to 10)
Head with vertex and frons covered with white scales,
frons with some black scales on sides. Antenna with scape
and flagellum studded with white scales, branches bearing
black scales. Eyes golden brown with black spots. Labial
palpus porrect, just reaching lower level of frons; segments
decorated with black scales.
Thorax furnished with white scales; a dorsal median
black fascia; collar clothed with white scales and bearing small
black spots, edged with yellow; tegula black, edged with white
scales. Forewing with ground colour white; costal edge black
up to antemedial area; a broad black fascia along subcostal,
median and submedian nervures, another fascia on median
nervure dividing into streaks along veins Cu,and M,; spots
on Cu,, M3, M: and R3; fringe white; underside with costal
fascia; vein R, arising from well beyond three-fourths of cell;
veins R^-Rs stalked from before upper angle cell; M: from
upper angle; M, from above lower angle of cell; M3 and
from lower angle of cell; Cu, from well beyond middle of cell.
Hindwing with ground colour white; Sc+Rj arising well before
middle of cell; Rs and Mj stalked from upper angle of cell; M,
from above lower angle of cell; M3 and CUj from lower angle
of cell; Cu, from middle of cell. Legs clothed with black scales;
fore coxa decorated with yellow and black scales; femora
orange above, fore femur black below; outer tibial spurs more
than half length of inner ones.
Abdomen dressed with yellow scales, bearing short,
black, dorsal bands; lateral and sublateral spots black; under
Fig. 1: Cladarctia hansraji sp. nov. Fig. 2: Cladarctia discocellulatus sp. nov. Fig. 3: Cladarctia bharrnourensis sp. nov.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 4-10: Cladarctia hansraji sp nov , 4. Forewing, 5. Hindwing, 6 Male genitalia, 7. Valva (right) - inner view,
8. Valva (right)- ventrolateral view, 9. Uncus - lateral view, 10. Aedeagus
surface white. Male genitalia with uncus moderately long,
triangular, narrowing towards tip, slightly curved near distal
end, tip narrow and pointed, dorsally setosed; acrotergite
covering lower half of uncus; tegument slightly longer than
vinculum, with margins slightly corrugated; vinculum U-
shaped; saccus developed. Valva long and narrow, costa well
defined; apical portion with three district projections, costal
margin bearing a large inwardly folded flap; juxta saucer-
shaped, apical margin emarginated. Aedeagus long and
slender, both of its walls heavily sclerotized, one of its walls
bearing small spines beyond middle; a circular patch bearing
three very minute spines at distal end. Female genitalia not
examined.
Wing Expanse (Half): Male: 20 mm
Material Examined: Holotype: 1 male, Himachal Pradesh,
Kalpa, 3,000 m, 2.vii. 1 995, Coll. A.P. Singh.
Para type: 2 males, data as for Holotype.
Distribution: india: Himachal Pradesh.
70
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 11-18: Cladarctia discocellulatus sp. nov., 11. Forewing, 12 Flindwing, 13. Male genitalia, 14 Valva (left) -inner view,
15. Valva (left) -ventrolateral view, 16. Uncus- lateral view, 17. Juxta-enlarged, 18 Aedeagus
Remarks: Cladarctia hansraji sp. nov. is closely related
to C. discocellulatus sp. nov. on the basis of certain
morphological characters like wing venation and absence of
submarginal black spots on hindwing. However, it is distinct
from discocellulatus in the absence of a prominent discoidal
black spot on hindwing. The armature of the aedeagus also
distinguishes it from discocellulatus.
Etymology: The species is named after an eminent Indian
entomologist Prof. Hans Raj Pajni of Panjab University,
Chandigarh.
Cladarctia discocellulatus sp. nov.
(Figs 2, 1 1 to 18)
Head with vertex and frons covered with white scales,
frons with black patches on sides. Antenna with scape and
flagellum studded with white scales, branches black. Eyes
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
71
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
golden with small black spots. Labial palpus porrect, just
reaching lower level of frons; first segment decorated with
yellow scales; second and third clothed with black scales.
Thorax clothed with white scales; a median black strip
present; collar furnished with white, edged with yellow scales,
spotted with black; tegula white, stripped with black. Forewing
with ground colour white, costal edge black near apex;
subcostal, median and submedian black fasciae; subcostal
fascia broadening gradually towards apex; median fascia with
streak on vein Cu, and extending to M,; submarginal spots
on veins Cup M , M3 and R5; a black point-like spot on apex;
fringe white; underside with costal fascia; veins R,-Rs stalked
from upper angle of cell; M from above lower angle; M, and
Cu, from lower angle of cell; Cu, beyond three-fourths of cell.
Hindwing with ground colour white; a prominent discoidal
black spot present; fringe white; Sc + R, originating before
middle of cell; Rs and M , stalked from upper angle of cell; M2
from well above lower angle of cell. Legs clothed with black
scales; fore coxa yellow, sides with fuscous scales; femora
orange above, fore femur black below; mid and hind femora
fringed with white scales; hind tibia and tarsi white, tarsi
stripped with black; outer tibial spurs more than half length
of inner ones.
Abdomen furnished with yellow scales, underside
clothed with white scales; black bands on dorsal segments
conspicuous, first and last segment bearing black spots
instead of bands; lateral and sublateral series of black spots.
Male genitalia with uncus moderately long, triangular, broad
at base, narrow towards distal end, appearing pointed laterally;
acrotergite well developed, rounded; tegumen with both of
its walls strongly sclerotized, longer than vinculum; vinculum
U-shaped; saccus not defined. Valva small and narrow;
sacculus slightly developed; costa highly differentiated; apical
portion with three projections, two small and one large; left
valva with lower projection reduced, middle one longer than
its counterpart on right valva; costal margin with large-flap
like process; juxta broad at base, apical portion emarginated
and membranous; transtilla bar-like. Aedeagus long, curved,
anterior tip rounded, both of its walls equally sclerotized;
vesica without any distinct armature. Female genitalia not
examined.
Wing Expanse (Half): Male: 1 9 mm.
Material Examined: Holotype: 1 male, Uttar Pradesh,
Kasauni, 2,000 m, 1 2.vi. 1 995, Coll. A.P. Singh.
Paratype: 1 male, Himachal Pradesh, Kalpa, 3,000 m,
2.vii. 1995, Coll. A.P. Singh.
Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh.
Remarks: As already discussed Cladarctia
discocellulatus sp. nov. is very closely allied to C. hansraji
sp. nov. C. discocellulatus is also related to another new
species C. bhannourensis as far as wing maculation, pattern
and armature of aedeagus are concerned. But it is distinct and
can be differentiated from bharmourensis on the basis of its
unique male genitalic features.
Etymology: The species has been named on the basis
of the prominent discoidal spot on the hindwing.
Cladarctia bharmourensis sp. nov.
(Figs 3, 19 to 25)
Head with vertex and frons furnished with white scales,
frons bearing black patches on sides. Antenna with scape
and flagellum studded with white scales, branches black.
Labial palpus porrect, reaching lower level of frons; first
segment decorated with yellow scales, second and third
segments clothed with black scales.
Thorax decorated with white scales, a dorsal median
black fascia; collar covered with white scales, prominent black
spots and edged with yellow; tegula white, stripped with
black. Forewing with ground colour white, costa edged with
black towards base; subcostal black fascia originating from
before middle of wing, gradually broadening towards apex;
median fascia from base to vein M,, ending well before termen,
sending streak to vein Cu2; spots on veins Cu,, M3, M, and
R5; underside with costal fascia; veins R -M stalked from
upper angle of cell; M and M, originating from lower angle of
cell; Cu, from just beyond two-thirds of cell. Hindwing with
ground colour white, discoidal black spot; submarginal spots
on M„ Cu, and 2A; fringe white; Sc + R: from middle of cell;
Rs and M arising from upper angle of cell; Cu, from before
lower angle of cell; Cu, from well beyond middle of cell. Legs
dressed with black scales; fore coxae yellow; fore femur orange
above, black below; mid and hind femora fringed with white;
hind tibia and tarsi white; tarsi banded with black; outer tibial
spurs more than half the length of inner ones.
Abdomen covered with yellow scales, underside
clothed with white scales; short dorsal segmental bands
present; first and last segments with oblong spots; lateral
and sublateral series of black spots. Male genitalia with uncus
of moderate size, triangular, slightly swollen at base, narrow
and pointed at tip, dorsally setose; acrotergite covering lower
half of uncus; tegumen longer than vinculum; vinculum V-
shaped; saccus defined. Valva short and broad, narrow at
both ends; costa well developed; apical portion with two
unequal finger-like projections; saccular margin with a flap-
like projection on left valva, same is produced into finger-like
projection in right valva; costal margin with flap-like projection;
juxta well sclerotized, cup-shaped. Aedeagus of moderate size,
narrow and slender; vesica without any armature. Female
genitalia not examined.
Wing Expanse (Half): Male: 21 mm.
72
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 19-25: Cladarctia bharmourensis sp nov., 19 Forewing, 20 Hindwing, 21. Male genitalia, 22. Valva (left) -inner view,
23. Valva (left) ventrolateral view, 24. Uncus - lateral view, 25 Aedeagus
Material Examined: Holotype: 1 male, Himachal
Pradesh, Bharmour, 2,000 m, 15. vi. 1993, Coll. A. P. Singh.
Paratype: 2 males, data as for Holotype.
Distribution: india: Himachal Pradesh.
Remarks: As many as three representatives of
C. bharmourensis sp. nov. were collected from a single locality
of Himachal Pradesh. It is related to C. discocellulatus
sp. nov. as described earlier.
Etymology: The species is named after its type locality
Bharmour town in Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh.
Key to the Indian species of Cladarctia Koda
1. Forewing with vein Cur arising from lower angle of cell;
hindwing without submarginal spots; valva of male genitalia
with apical portion bearing three prominent projections ... 2
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
73
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
— Forewing with Cu,, originating from before lower angle of
cell; hindwing with black submarginal spots; valva of male
genitalia having more or less than three, apical projections
3
2. Tegula black, edged with white scales, hindwing without
discoidal spot; aedeagus with one of its walls bearing small
spines beyond middle; sclerotized patch having three distinct
spines at distal end hansraji n. sp.
— Tegula white, stripped with black scales; hindwing with a black
discoidal spot; aedeagus with both walls without spines; no
distinct armature at distal end discocellulatus n. sp.
3. Forewing with veins R2-R,. stalked from upper angle of cell;
M, from upper angle; hindwing with four submarginal black
spots quadriramosa (Kollar)
— Forewing with veins R^M, stalked from upper angle; hindwing
with three submarginal black spots bharmourensis n. sp.
Hampson, GF. (1894); Fauna of British India, Moths, including Ceylon
and Burma 2: 1-609. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.
Hampson, G.F. (1901): Catalogue of Lepidoptera Phalaenae in the
British Museum 3: 1-690.
■ ■ ■
Abbreviations used
1A: First anal vein, 2A: Second anal vein, AED;
Aedeagus, CO: Costa, CRN: Comuti, Cu^ First Cubital Vein,
Cu,: Second Cubital Vein, F: Frenulum, JX: Juxta, M : First
median vein, M,: Second median vein, M}: Third median vein,
R,: First radial vein, R,: Second radial vein, R,: Third radial
vein, R ■ Fourth radial vein, R • Fifth radial vein, Rs: Radial
sector, SA: Saccus, Sc: Subcosta, Sc-tRr Stalk of Sc+Rp
SL: Sacculus, TG: Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES:
Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VEV: Valva.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Dr. N. Koda of Japan for valuable reprints and
guidance. Financial Assistance rendered by CSIR, New Delhi
is gratefully acknowledged.
Koda. Nobutoyo (1988): A generic classification of the subfamily
Arctiinae of Palaearctic and Oriental regions based on male and
female genitalia (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), Part-II. Tyo to Ga
38(3): 1-79.
REFERENCES
74
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
75-78
FISHES OF THE GENUS NEMA CHEIL US (BLEEKER 1863) IN KERALA WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES, NEMACHEILUS PERIYA REN SIS'
B. Madhusoodana Kurup2-3 and K.V. Radhakrishnan2
'Accepted October, 2002
’School of Industrial Fisheries, Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Fine Arts Avenue, PB No 1791, Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India.
’Email madhukurup@hotmail com, madhukurup@cusat res in
Fishes of the genus Nemacheilus (Bleeker 1863) are represented by 10 species in Kerala. During fish species inventory
surveys carried out in Periyar lake, three specimens of this genus collected were different in morpho-meristic characters
and colour pattern from the species hitherto described. The new species is named Nemacheilus periyarensis after the
water body from which it was collected. A key to the species of genus Nemacheilus reported from Kerala is given with
a detailed description of the new species.
Key words: Nemacheilus periyarensis sp. nov., Periyar lake, Kerala
INTRODUCTION
The genus Nemacheilus (Bleeker) consists of a group
of species that are remarkably similar in general morphology.
Since they lack the spines, scutes, various other processes,
and features of taxonomical value, species under Nemacheilus
(Bleeker) are the most difficult to distinguish and differentiate
(Menon 1987). Nemacheiline species from India were described
first by Hamilton-Buchanan ( 1 822). Subsequently, McClelland
(1839); Gunther (1868); Day (1 878); Hora(1935) and Menon
(1987) described a number of new species. No attempt has so
far been made to revise the Nemacheilinae species inhabiting
Indian waters, barring the partial revision of the genus from
Eastern Himalayas and the revision of the Cobitoid fishes by
Menon (1987). More than 450 species have been described
under the subfamily Nemacheilinae (Kottelat 1990). These
are distributed in South China, Southeast Asia, Baluchistan,
Western Iran and Northeast Africa. Seventy-nine
Nemacheiline species under 2 genera, Nemacheilus and
Triplophysea are known from the Indian waters (Menon 1987).
Nine subgenera under Nemacheilus and ten subgenera
under Triplophysea have so far been described. Genus
Nemacheilus includes the subgenera Schistura McClelland,
Acanthocobitis Peters, Nemacheilus Van Hesselt,
Nemachilicthys Day, Mesonemacheilus Benarescu and
Nalbant, Infundibulatus subgenera nov; Petruichthys
subgenera nov; Aborichthys Chaudhuri and Indoreonectes
Rita and Benarescu. In Schistura , 1 1 species have been
recognized, while the subgenus Petruichthys and
Nemachilicthys have only one species each, Nemacheilus
brevis and Nemacheilus ruppelli respectively. Ten species
have so far been described under the genus Nemacheilus in
Kerala waters. (Jayaram 1999) and a few species described
earlier have been treated as synonyms of these 10 species
(Menon 1999). While investigating the fish fauna of Periyar
lake, one of the 1 8 biodiversity hot spots of India, the authors
came across three specimens whose morpho-meristic features
and colouration were found to be totally different from those
of the species hitherto described. A new species has therefore
been erected whose description is given below. A number of
species have been reported from Periyar lake by Raj (1941);
Hora (1941); Menon and Jacob ( 1 996); Zacharias and Minimol
( 1 999) and Gopi (200 1 ). A key to the species recorded under
the genus Nemacheilus in Kerala is also given.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The type locality of the new species is Thannikkudy,
Periyar Lake, Kerala, south India between 9° 28' 9 1 " N and 77°
16' 44" E. Morphometric measurements were recorded with
dial callipers to the nearest millimetre and expressed as percent
of standard length. Meristics were counted following Talwar
and Jhingran( 1991).
Nemacheilus periyarensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
Holotype: Deposited in ZSI Calicut, No. ZSI (WGRS)
CLT.V/F 1 3030. 85.2 mm TL, Periyar Lake, 1 8.ii.2002.
Paratypes: 2 ex. Deposited in School of Industrial
Fisheries Museum. 80.6-82.0 mm TL, Periyar Lake,
18.ii.2002.
Diagnosis: An elongated and slender species, dorsal
fin with 9 branched rays, lateral line incomplete, ends above
the anal fin, body with irregular network of bands and blotches,
dorsal and caudal fins with 4 or more rows of dark bands and
a black ocellus at the lower angle of the caudal peduncle, very
near to the caudal origin.
Description: Based on 3 specimens collected
from Thannikkudy, Periyar lake, ranging from 67.38 to
69.58 mm SL.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Scalel cm
I t 1
0 1 2
Fig. 1 : Nemacheilus periyarensis sp nov.
DI, 9; PI, 9; VI, 6; AI, 5; Cl 9.
Dorsal profile slightly arched, compared to the ventral.
Lateral line ending above the anal origin. Eyes moderately
large, nostrils close to each other, head longer than broad,
mouth more or less semicircular, subterminal with the upper
jaw slightly prolonged. Barbels well developed, 3 pairs,
depth of the body 12.5-1 3 .69% ( 1 3 .059) in SL, length of the
head 17.73-22.87% (20.3) of SL, snout length less than
interorbital width, the latter less than the postorbital length.
Eyes not visible from ventral side of the head, diameter 1 9.88-
26.33% (23.10) of head length, shorter than the interorbital
width, 38.4-72.5% (55.45) of the latter. Anterior nostrils flap-
like. Mouth slightly pointed rather than semicircular, lips
fleshy, lower lip interrupted in the middle. Barbels well
developed, broader at their bases and with pointed tips, outer
rostral barbels longer than inner ones and are equal to or
larger than the maxillary barbels, not extending to the anterior
border of eye. Caudal peduncle length 10.34-13.56% ( 1 1 .95)
in SL, least depth 65.23-79.83% (72.53) in head length. (Mean
value in parentheses)
Squamation: Lateral line incomplete, ending above the
origin of the anal fin or slightly behind it, and followed by a
shallow groove, which becomes deeper as it reaches the
caudal peduncle. Scales small, imbricate, covering the whole
body except ventral profile between pectoral and pelvic
fins.
Fins: Dorsal fin inserted closer to snout than to caudal
Its base larger, forming 63.97-84.74% of the height. Height
89.18% in head length. Pectorals smaller than head length,
83.72% in head length. Pelvic fins smaller than head and
pectoral fins, length 70.92% in head length and 77.77% in
pectoral fin length. Ventral not reaching anal fins and the
latter not reaching the caudal fin. Distance between pectoral
and ventral is 26.32% in SL. Distance between ventral and
anal fins 24.57-30.2% in SL. Pre-anal distance 70.1 1%-78.6%
in SL, pre-dorsal distance smaller, 43-48% in SL. Pre-ventral
distance 4.59%-5.01% in SL, pre-pectoral distance 19.49-
25.20% in SL. Caudal forked.
Colouration: Ground colour light brown with irregularly
descending narrow yellow bands, which sometimes coalesce
to form reticular networks. Irregular yellow spots or bands
dispersed between them. Bands also arise from the ventral
side towards the lateral line. The pattern of colouration extends
on to the head and snout region. Dorsal fin marked with
4 dark bands, while caudal fin has 5 narrow dark bands. Bands
are also seen on the paired fins. Pectoral fins are either with
dusky rays or with well-distinguished dark band. Ventral
fins have two narrow dark coloured bands. Anal fin also
with two dark narrow bands. Dark ocellus at the lower
angle of the caudal peduncle, close to the origin of caudal
rays.
Distribution: Thannikkudy in Periyar lake, Kerala,
South India.
Etymology: Named after the water body from where
the specimens were collected.
Remarks: The new species, Nemacheilus periyarensis
shows close resemblance to Nemacheilus pulchellus (Day)
reported from North India in its colouration and body
characteristics. However, the new species can easily be
distinguished from Nemacheilus pulchellus by the presence
of 9 branched rays on the dorsal fin against 1 0 branched rays
reported in the latter. Further, unlike in N. pulchellus , only
the lower lip is interrupted in the middle and the lateral line is
not complete in the new species. The new species also shows
similarity with Nemacheilus petrubanarescui (Menon 1984)
in colour pattern and ratio of body depth to standard length.
However, the dorsal fin is not inserted equidistantly
between the snout and caudal fin in Nemacheilus
periyarensis. Also, in the former, the dorsal fin has
only 8 rays. The new species described is compared
with closely related species, the results are given in
Table 1 .
76
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 1: Comparison of Nemacheilus periyarensis sp nov. with closely related species
Character N periyarensis N pulchellus N guentheri N. petrubanarescui N triangularis
No of rays on the
dorsal fin
9
10
Insertion of dorsal fin
Closer to the snout
than to the caudal
Equidistant or
slightly closer to the
snout
No of barbels
3 pairs
3 pairs
Colour pattern
on body
Bands descending
from dorsal to ventral
side, oblique, forming
network. Yellow
oblique spots
dispersed
Yellow spots and
bands between the
vertical bands
Bands on fins
4 rows of bands on
dorsal, 5 rows on
caudal, 2 rows on
ventral arid anal,
single on pectoral
Dorsal fin with two
dark bands
Placement of vent
Closer to the anal
fin, and the distance
between the anal fin
origin to the anal
opening forms
18 78% in the
distance between
the ventral fin origin
and anal fin origin
Closer to the anal
and the distance
between the anal
fin origin to the
anal opening
forms 16 17% in
the distance
between the
ventral fin origin
and anal fin origin
Lateral line
Incomplete, ending
at the origin of anal
fin
Complete
8
8
8
Equidistant between
the snout and
caudal fin
Equidistant between
the snout and
caudal fin
Equidistant between
the snout and
caudal fin
3 pairs
3 pairs
3 pairs
2-3 rows of yellow
spots on the body,
black edged
7-8 saddle shaped
bands which are
anteriorly broken
into a number of
narrow bands
Varies considerably
with age. Yellow
'Y’-shaped bands
3-4 rows of spots
on dorsal
A row of spots on
dorsal, two dark
bands on caudal
Dorsal and caudal
with two bands
each, anal and pelvic
fins with one each
Closer to the anal
and the distance
between the anal
fin origin to the
anal opening forms
1 8 55% in the
distance between
the ventral fin
origin and anal fin
origin
Closer to the anal
and the distance
between the anal
fin origin to the
anal opening forms
29 8% in the
distance between
the ventral fin
origin and anal
fin origin
Closer to the anal
and the distance
between the anal
fin origin to the anal
opening forms
23.66% in the
distance between
the ventral fin origin
and anal fin origin
Incomplete, ending
above the anal fin
Incomplete, ending
at the base of anal
Complete
fin
Key to the species of Nemacheilus (Bleekf.r 1 863 )
REPORTED FROM FRESHWATERS OF KERALA
1 . Pair of well developed nasal barbels 2
No well developed nasal barbels 3
2. Body marked with well-defined and regular cross bars
Nemacheilus evezardi
Body marked with narrow, small bars that are irregularly
dispersed Nemacheilus keralensis
3. Body marked by series of vertical bars 4
— Body not marked with a series of vertical bars 5
4. Caudal emarginate, lateral line ending in front of dorsal fin
Nemacheilus denisonii
— Caudal forked, lateral line complete, body with vertical bars
and black spots Nemacheilus semiarmatus
5. Body with moniliform black lateral band, seven branched
rays on dorsal fin Nemacheilus monilis
— Body marked with irregular net of dark brownish and whitish
yellow bars, a medium sized small dark bar at base of caudal
fin 6
6. Dorsal fin with 9 branched rays, lateral line incomplete
Nemacheilus periyarensis
Dorsal tin with 8 branched rays, lateral line complete or
incomplete 7
7. Body marked with 2 or 3 rows of large yellow spots edged
with black, lateral line incomplete... Nemacheilus guentheri
Body with oblique bands 8
8. Body with Y-shaped bands Nemacheilus triangularis
Body with varying number of wavy bands which sometimes
coalesce to form reticulate networks 9
9. Saddle-shaped 7-8 black bands, sides with varying number of
bands, broken up into narrow bands anteriorly
Nemacheilus petrubanarescui
Body with irregular dark blotches on back, sides with
reticulation of dark blotches and wavy bands
Nemacheilus menonii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors sincerely thank the Officer-in-Charge of
Zoological Survey of India and scientists for help rendered
in identifying the new species. Special thanks are due to
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
77
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Dr. K. Rema Devi and Dr. T.J. Indra for their sincere effort in
separating the new species from our collection of
loaches examined by them. The financial support given
by the NAT-ICAR Project for the present study is
thankfully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Prof. (Dr.)
C. Hridayanathan, Director, School of Industrial Fisheries,
for providing necessary facilities for carrying out this
study. Deep gratitude is also extended to C.P. Sunil Kumar
and M.D. Mahesan who assisted the team for the
survey.
REFERENCES
Day (1878): Fishes of India being a natural history of fishes known to
inhabit the sea and fresh waters of India, Burma and Ceylon.
Dawson, London 1:778: 2: 195 plates (Reprint 1958).
Gopi, K.C. (2001 ): Garra periyarensis , a new cyprinid fish from Periyar
Tiger Reserve, Kerala, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98: 92-83.
Gunther, A. (1868): Catalogue of the fishes of the British Museum,
London. 7, xx+512.
Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the
river Ganges and its branches I-VII, Archibald, Edinburgh Hurst,
Robinson & Co, London. 1-405, pis. 1-39.
Hora, S.L. ( 1 935): On a collection of fish from Afghanistan. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc 37: 784-802.
Hora, S.L. (1941): Homalopterid fishes from Peninsular India. Rec.
Indian. Mus. 43: 230-231.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian region.
Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. 509 pp.
Kottelat, M. (1990): Indochinese nemacheilines: a revision of
Nemacheiline loaches (Pisces: Cyprini formes) ofThailand, Burma,
Cambodia and Southern Vietnam Verl F. Pfeil: Munchen, pp. 1-
262.
McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiat. Res. 19: 217-471,
pis. 37-61.
Menon, A.G.K. (1984): Nemacheilus ( Mesonemacheilus )
petrubanarescui, a new loach from Dharmasthala, Karnataka
state, India (Pisces, Cobitidae). Cybium 8(2): pp. 45-49.
Menon, A.GK. (1987): The Fauna of India and adjacent countries.
Rec. zool. Surv. India Vol. IV, pp. 1-259.
Menon, A.GK. (1999): Checklist of freshwater fishes of India. Rec.
zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper No. 175: 1-366.
Menon, A.GK. & PC. Jacob (1996): Crossocheilus periyarensis. a new
cyprinid fish from Thannikkudy (Thekkadi), Kerala, India.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 62-64.
Raj, B.S. (1941): A new genus of Schizothoracinae fishes from
Travancore, South India. Rec. Indian Mus. 43: 209-214.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and
adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
2 volumes: xix + 1158.
Zacharias, V.J. & K.C. Minimol (1999): Nemacheilus menonii a new
species of fish from Malappara, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 288-290.
78
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
79-82
A NEW NEMACHEILINE FISH OF THE GENUS SCHISTURA MCCLELLAND
(CYPRINIFORMES: BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
W. VlSHWANATH2'3 AND K. NEBESHWAR ShARMA2
'Accepted December, 2002
’Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India
’Email: vnath54@yahoo.co m
A new nemacheiline fish species, Schistura tigrinum is described here from the Barak river (Brahmaputra drainage) of
Manipur, India. The species is characterised by 18-30 dark brown transverse bars on the body, irregularly arranged,
often fused at different points, width of each equals pale white interspaces, moderately high adipose crest on dorsal and
ventral sides of caudal peduncle, a long head (26. 1-27.9% of standard length), dorsal fin with 8/2 branched rays and an
incomplete lateral line.
Key words: new nemacheiline fish, genus Schistura, Manipur
INTRODUCTION
Manipur state, in the extreme northeastern part of India,
has numerous hill streams with a rich loach fauna. New species
of the genus Schistura McClelland were described by
Chaudhuri (1912), Hora( 1921), andTilakand Hussain (1990)
from Manipur. Hora (1937) also reported the occurrence of
S. vinciguerrae in the Namya river of the State. Vishwanath
(2000) and Vishwanath and Laisram (2001) reported the
occurrence of eight species of Schistura in the State.
The Barak river originating from Lai Leiyai area of the
Senapati district of Manipur takes a southern course into the
hilly terrain of the Tamenglong district, and then into
Churachandpur district and Jiribam subdivision (Imphal
district) to finally flow out of the State at Jirighat. The river
forms a part of the Brahmaputra drainage. While making fish
collections from the Khunphung area of Tamenglong district,
seven specimens of Schistura which do not fit into the
descriptions of any known species of this genus have been
found. This species is described here as Schistura tigrinum
sp. nov. Counts and measurements follow Kottelat (1990).
Type specimens of the species are deposited in the Manipur
University Museum of Fisheries (MUMF), Imphal, Manipur.
Schistura tigrinum sp. nov.
Material examined: Holotype: MUMF41 05, Female, 84.5
mm SL, Barak river at Khunphung, Tamei Subdivision,
Tamenglong district, Manipur, 20. xi. 1999, Coll. K. Nebeshwar
Shamra.
Paratype: MUMF4106/7;3 specimens, male, 83.0-84.0
mm SL; 4 specimens, female, 86.0-97.0 mm SL. Collection data
same as Holotype.
Diagnosis: A species of Schistura with the following
combination of characters: 1 8-30 dark brown transverse bars
on body, irregularly arranged, often fused at different points,
width of each equals pale white interspaces, moderately high
adipose crest on dorsal and ventral sides of caudal peduncle;
long head (26.1-27.9% of SL), dorsal fin with 814 branched
rays; incomplete lateral line; strong processus dentiformes.
Description: D. iii, 814; A. iii, 514; C. 9+8; P.i, 10; V.i, 6.
Body size large and elongate, depth increasing up to about
halfway between tip of snout and caudal fin origin, almost
uniform depth behind. Body section circular anteriorly, slightly
compressed posteriorly. Flead slightly depressed and elongate,
cheeks inflated. Caudal peduncle tapered posteriorly.
Moderately high adipose crest on dorsal aspect of caudal
peduncle, extending up to middle of caudal fin. Pectoral fin
extends up to half the length of the distance between pectoral
and pelvic fin origins. Axillary pelvic lobe present; pelvic fin
origin slightly behind dorsal fin origin, opposite 1st branched
dorsal ray. Caudal fin deeply emarginate.
Body covered by embedded non-overlapping scales.
Lateral line incomplete, extends to the level of vent or up to
anal fin origin. Cephalic lateral line system with 7 supraorbital,
1 1+4 infraorbital, 9 operculo-mandibular and 3 supratemporal
pores.
Anterior nostril pierced on the front side of a pointed
flap-like tube with a very deeply notched anterior rim. Mouth
arched, twice as wide as long. Upper lip with a small shallow
median incision, lower lip with a deep one. Lips thick, with
numerous uniform fine furrows, furrowed lobes of the lower
lip slightly bigger. Strong processus dentiformes present.
Inner rostral barbel reaches corner of mouth, and the outer
one reaches a point vertical to the anterior margin of eye.
Maxillary barbel extends beyond a point vertical to posterior
rim of eye. Head longer than depth of body, its width more
than half of its lateral length. Eyes moderate, situated dorsally,
completely invisible from ventral side. Mouth gape wide. Tip
of snout and barbels covered with minute pointed tubercles.
Sexual dimorphism: Suborbital flap absent in males.
Males smaller and shorter, having fewer coloured vertical bars.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1 : Schistura tigrinum sp. nov. (lateral view)
Table 1: Comparison of characters of S. tigrinum, S vinciguerrae and S. poculi
SI. Schistura tigrinum Schistura vinciguerrae Schistura poculi
1 17-30 dark brown colour bars, no blotch on
back and lateral side Bars in front of
dorsal fin slightly thinner.
2 Bars reach ventral midline on caudal
peduncle but not meeting their homolog ues
3 Dorsal fin with no black blotch at base
of simple and branched rays Dorsal
fin rays stained black
4 Pelvic fin does not reach anal fin origin.
5 Moderately high dorsal arid ventral
crest on caudal peduncle
6 Anterior nostril pierced in front of a
pointed flap-like tube with very deep
notch at anterior rim.
7. Lips very thick, a wide median incision
and a small incision on upper lip and
uniformly spaced furrows on the whole
area of both lips
10-16 dark bars, 2-3 dark saddles in front
of dorsal fin and 4-5 bars behind dorsal
fin and the bars on each side also meet
along the dorsal midline.
Bars in front of dorsal fin conspicuously
thinner than those behind.
Bars reach ventral midtine on caudal
peduncle, meet their homologues
Dorsal fin with a black blotch at
base of last simple and first branched
ray and a second blotch behind
Pelvic fin reaches anus or slightly beyond
the anus
No crest on caudal peduncle
Anterior nostril pierced in front side of a
pointed flap-like tube No notch at anterior
rim.
Lips not very thick, lower lip with a median
interruption and 3-5 deep furrows in the
median area on each side
15-17 dark brown bars, 11-12 dark
blotches on the back
Bars conspicuously thinner than those
behind dorsal fin.
Dorsal fin with a black blotch at base of
last simple and first branched ray and a
second blotch behind.
Pelvic fin reaches about halfway to
anal fin.
No crest on caudal peduncle
Slightly pointed flap-like tube.
No notch at anterior rim
Lips not very thick, lower lip with a
wide incision, knob-like structure on
either side of the incision, rest of it plain
80
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Table 2 Comparative morphometry of Schistura tigrinum, S. vi nciguerrae and S. poculi
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
CO
oo
CM
M;
O
CM
in
CD
CM
0
X—
LT3
CM
in
CO
CM
CM
oo
co
CD
CO
CM
CM
in
CO
CM
CM
03
in
Q
-H
-H
+i
-H
-H
-H
-H
-H
4H
-H
-H
-H
-H
+\
-H
CO
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
0
O
O
O
0
1
X
o
Q?
CD
C
CO
(T
m
in
in
03
O
CO
CM
CD
03
CO
CM
03
CO
CD
in
o
CD
d
03
d
CD
d
03
d
in
d
in
d
d
CD
d
Nf
d
CM
d
CO
d
00
d
7=
o
CD
NT
d
03
0
03
CM
in
03
d
NT
00
h-
0
o
CM
27
in
37
CD
co
77
CD
2,
co
07
M7
00
co
Z3
o
c
c
TO
(D
o
o
o
o
0
O
0
0
0
O
0
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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
81
Length of lower caudal lobe 23.4(22.3-24.9) ±1.2 101 .8(99.5-107 8) ±4.0 23 4(19.9-25 3) ±1.4 120.0(106.0-128 0) ±7 2 22 2(20.5-25 2) ±1 .1 107.0(99 0-124.0) ±6.3
Length of median caudal rays 17.4(17.2-17.6) ±0.2 75.8(71 8-78.1 ) ±2 8 16.7(1 4.7-1 8.1) ±1 2 86.0(77.0-100.0) ±7.5 1 5 3(1 2.5-1 8 6) ±1.6 74.0(60.0-93.0) ±8 8
Depth of anal fin 1 6.7(16 3-1 7.3) ±0.4 72.7(69.3-75 0) ±2.4 17.6(16.1-19.8) ±1 .0 90 0(85 0-99.0) ±3.6 17.1(15 4-19.2) ±1.1 83.0(71 .0-94.0) ±6.0
Pelvic fin length 16.8(16.2-17.8) ±0.5 73.2(71 .3-75.5) ±1 .7 18.7(16.9-20.7) ±1.0 96 0(89 0-1 02 0) ±4.8 1 7 3( 1 5.7-1 8.6) ±0.7 84.0(77.0-91 .0) ±3.7
Pectoral fin length 19 4(18 4-20 5) ±1 0 84 0(80.6-88 5) ±3.3 22.3(19.6-24.2) ±1.3 1 1 5 0(1 04 0-1 22 0) ±5.6 19.5(18.0-21.2) ±1.0 94.0(86 0 -103.0) ±4.2
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Colour; Body olivaceous grey with 18-30 dark brown
vertical bars. There is great variation in the colour pattern
and number of bars. The width of the bars increases from
head to caudal fin base, bars as wide as the interspaces. There
is gradual increase in the number of bars with increase in
length. There are 29-30 vertical bars in the larger specimens
(88.0-97.0 mm SL). Some bars behind the dorsal fin are regularly
arranged. Most of the bars in front of the dorsal fin are divided
vertically into two or three, united dorsally. Most of the vertical
bars posterior to dorsal fin split into two halves, some such
splits form incomplete bars. All the bars have dark edges.
In smaller specimens (83.0-84.5 mm SL), there are 17-18
bars. Some bars on the pre-dorsal area are reticulated. A
distinct, vertically elongated spot on lower half of caudal
base and a comparatively small spot on its upper extremity.
All the bases of the simple and branched rays are black, except
for a small gap between simple and first branched ray. Anal
and pectoral fins have a few black rays. Dorsal surface of
head and nape have reticulated bars. Last simple and all
branched dorsal rays have a row of elongated black marks.
Caudal fin has 3-4 irregular vertical rows of spots.
Etymology; The fish has been named after the tiger-like
striations on the body.
Distribution and Habitat: Known only from the type
locality, Barak River at Khunphung, Tamenglong district,
Manipur. The fish inhabits the pebbly bottom of large, swift
flowing streams.
Discussion; There is wide variation in the colour pattern
and number of colour bars, i.e. 1 7-30 bars. The new species is
very close to S. vinciguerrae (Hora) and S. poculi (Smith) in
colour pattern. But it can be distinguished by its moderately
Chaudhurj, B.L. (1912): Description of some new species of freshwater
fishes from north India. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 437-444.
Hora, S.L. (1921 ): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some observations
on those of Naga hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 166-214.
Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum, XXX11. On
a small collection of fish from the upper Chindwin Drainage.
Rec. Indian Mus. 39: 331-350.
Kottelat, M (1990): Indochinese nemacheilines, a revision of
nemacheiline loaches (Pisces: Cypriniformes) of Thailand,
Burma, Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam. Verlag, Dr.
Friedrich Pfiel, Munchen. 262 pp.
Menon, A.GK. (1987): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries.
Pisces, Vol. 4, Teleostei: Cobitoidea, Part I, Homalopteridae,
259 pp., 16 pis. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Smith, H.M. (1945): The freshwater fishes of Siam or Thailand.
high dorsal and a small ventral crest on the caudal peduncle
(absent in both S. vinciguerrae and S. poculi ), anteriorly
tapered shape of caudal peduncle profile and 3-4 irregular
vertical coloured bands on caudal fin; longer head (26. 1 -27.9
vs. 18.3-21.3 and 20.7-23.9); longer head width at nares (13.1-
14.7 vs. 8.2-10.1 and 8.3-1 1.1); wider head (17.7- 19. 8 vs. 13.1-
14.9 and 13.2-15.8); longer snout (12.4- 13.6 vs. 8. 2-9. 7 and 7.9-
11.4) respectively of S. vinciguerrae and S. poculi.
Comparison of specific morphological characters of
S. tigrinum , S. vinciguerrae and 5. poculi are given in
Table 1 and a detailed one for proportional measurements in
Table 2.
Smith ( 1 945) described 5. poculi from northern Thailand
(erstwhile Siam). Kottelat (1990) reported its distribution in
Salween and Mekong basins and S. vinciguerrae in Chindwin-
Irrawaddy basin. Although Kottelat (1990) reported that sexual
dimorphism was not known in S. vinciguerrae , Menon (1987)
observed the presence of sub-orbital flap in males of the
species collected from Namya River. All the male specimens
collected from Ukhrul district of Manipur (Chindwin basin)
have a sub-orbital flap, and represent another species,
S. reticulata (Vishwanath and Nebeshwar 2004).
The new species was also compared to S. vinciguerrae
specimens in MUMF and found to have differences as follows:
shallower body (14.4-1 5.9 vs. 16.7-17.9), longer head (26.1-
27.9 vs. 18.3-21.3), longer snout (12.4-13.6 vs. 8. 2-9. 7), and
wider head at nares (13.1-14.7 vs. 9.7-10.7).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to ICAR-NATP for financial assistance.
Bull. U.S. Nat. Hist. Mus. 188: 622.
Tilak, R. & A. Hussain (1990): Description of a New Loach,
Nemacheilus chindwinicus sp. nov. (Homalopteridae.
Cypriniformes) from Manipur, India, with Notes on the
Systematic Status of the Genus Nemacheilus and the Subfamily
Nemacheilinae. Mitt. Zool. Berl. 66(1990): 51-58.
Vishwanath, W. (2000): Fish Fauna of Manipur. Manipur Assn. Sci &
Soc. 143 pp.
Vishwanath, W. & J. Laisram (2001): Fishes of the subfamily
Nemacheilinae Regan (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae) from
Manipur. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2): 197-216.
Vishwanath, W. & K. Nebeshwar (2004): Schistura reticulata, a new
species of balitorid loach from Manipur, India, with redescription
of S. chindwinica. Ichchyol. Exploi: Freshwaters 15(4):
323-330.
82
J, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
83-85
A NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS (CYPRINIDAE, CYPRININAE)
FROM KERALA, INDIA'
K.S. Jameela Beevi2-3 and A. Ramachandran2' 4
'Accepted December, 2002
"School of Industrial Fisheries, Fine Arts Avenue, Lake View, Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India
’Selection Grade Lecturer in Zoology, Maharaja’s College, Ernakulam, Cochin 682 011, Kerala, India,
Email: ksjameela@yahoo.cbm
■’Email: ram-alappat@eth.net
A new species of Cyprinid fish Puntius muvattupuzhaensis is described from the River Muvattupuzha, Ernakulam
district, Kerala, southern India. It is a small, elongate Puntius species with characteristics: dorsal fin with unbranched
principal ray osseous and serrated; lateral line (LI) complete with 24-25 scales, lateral transverse scale-rows 4 between
dorsal origin and lateral line, 21/2-3 between lateral line and pelvic fin base, barbels absent, body with two spots on the
flank: a shoulder spot below 4,h LI scale, and a caudal spot on 1 9lh-2 1 sl LI scales, dorsal fin without spots. Its affinity to
the closest species, P. punctatus Day, and other related species is discussed. A key to Indian species, including the newly
described one, having a strong, osseous and serrated principal dorsal fin ray, is provided.
Key words: Cyprinidae, Puntius muvattupuzhaensis sp. nov., Kerala
INTRODUCTION
Cyprinid fish of the genus Puntius, owing to their
species diversity and abundance, are ubiquitous in almost all
types of freshwater bodies of both lowland and highland
areas. The genus is widely distributed in South and Southeast
Asian countries. Our systematic understanding about the
species and their diversity, particularly in the context of the
Indian sub-region, is based primarily on the works of Day
(1865, 1875-78, 1889); Jayaram( 1981, 1999);TalwarandJhingran
(1991); Menon (1999), including the description of an
additional species from Manipur, India, by Menon etal. (2000)
who treated P. punctatus as a distinct species.
During an ichthyological survey in Ernakulam district,
Kerala, the authors collected five specimens of the genus
Puntius from River Muvattupuzha at Ooramana, near
Muvattupuzha town. On detailed study, the specimens were
found to be distinct from all known species. Based on this
study, a new species Puntius muvattupuzhaensis is created.
Standard practices ( Jayaram 1 999) were followed while taking
measurements. Data are presented in percentages, with the
mean value followed by range within parentheses. The type
specimens are deposited in the Zoological Survey of India,
Western Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut (ZS1/WGFRS
/CLT)
Puntius muvattupuzhaensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )
Holotype: F. 12241, ZSI / WGFRS, CLT, (Zoological
Survey of India / Western Ghats Field Research Station,
Calicut), 48 mm SL, Muvattupuzha river, Ooramana, Ernakulam
district, Kerala, India; 21. xi.2001 ; Coll. K.S. Jameela Beevi &
A. Ramachandran.
Para types: Four specimens, 39- 48 mm SL; data same as
for holotype.
Diagnosis: A small, elongate Puntius species without
barbels; dorsal fin with an unbranched osseous and serrated
principal ray; lateral line complete with 24-25 scales, lateral
transverse scale rows 21/2-3 between lateral line and pelvic fin
insertion, body with two spots on flank: one small shoulder
spot just below the 4th lateral line scale, and a caudal spot on
1 9lh-2 1 st lateral line scales.
Description: D. iii, 8; P. i, 1 1-13; V. ii, 7; A. iii, 5; C. 10+9.
Body elongate, both dorsal and ventral profiles gently convex
with predorsal part a little prominent. Depth of body 32.6
(30.4-34.9)% of SL; head small, its length 28.5 (26.1-33.3),
i \
1 cm
Fig. 1 : Lateral view of Puntius muvattupuzhaensis sp. nov.
Jameela Beevi & Ramachandran 48 mm SL
Holotype, F 12241 , ZSIA/VGFRS, CLT
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
I $
Fig. 2: Lateral view of similar Puntius species
a. Lateral view of Puntius ticto;
b. Lateral view of Puntius punctatus
F. 41-7/76 Estt. 86, ZSI, Chennai;
c. Lateral view of Puntius muvattupuzhaensis sp. nov.
48 mm SL. Holotype, F. 12241 , ZSI/WGFRS, CLT
maximum depth 23.4 (21 .7-25.0) of SL; snout short and smaller
than eye, 24.4 (21.4-27.3) of head length <HL), 63.7 (60.0-66.9)
of inter-orbital width (IOW); eyes large, its diameter 29.7(28.6-
30.9) of HL, 94.3 (80.0-100.0) of IOW; mouth arched inferior;
barbels absent.
Dorsal fin origin equidistant from tip of snout and caudal
fin base, both the predorsal distance and postdorsal distance
nearly the same, 5 1 .0 (48.8-53.8) of SL, distal fin margin straight
or slightly concave, principal spinous ray of dorsal fin strongly
osseous, serrated, with a distal flexible portion, dorsal fin
height 27.7 (23.3-33.3) ofSL and 90.4 (83.3-97.4) of HL. Pectoral
fin almost reaching ventral fin, its length 20. 1 ( 1 8.6-22.9) of SL,
70.9 (61 .5-78.6) of HL, pre-pectoral distance 27.2 (26.2-29.2) of
SL. Pelvic fin long and pointed, reaching anal opening, its
length 2 1 . 1 (20.8-2 1 .4) of SL, and 76.6 (7 1 .4-8 1.8) of HL, pre-
pelvic distance 50.6 (45.7-53.8) of SL. Anal fin long, nearly
reaching caudal fin base, falling short of 2 or 3 scales from the
latter, its length 67.9 (61.5-75.0) of HL, preanal distance 73.3
(69.8-76.9) of SL; caudal fin forked, its lobes pointed. Caudal
peduncle depth 63.3 (62.5-70.0) of its length, 12.9 (10.9-14.3)
of SL. Maximum length of body cavity 44.4(4 1 .9-45 .8) of SL.
Scales large; lateral line complete with 24-25 scales;
scale rows in transverse series between dorsal fin origin and
lateral line 4; 2'/2-3 scale rows between lateral line and pelvic
fin base; predorsal scales 8.
Colour: Live specimen: olive green back, silvery on
flanks and belly. Dorsal fin reddish; pelvic and anal fins golden
yellow, pectoral and caudal fins faintly greyish. Two spots on
flank: a black shoulder spot on the scale below the 4th lateral
line scale, and a caudal spot inside a golden ring on scales 19-
2 1 . After preservation : upper half blackish with scales edged
with fine black spots, lower half silvery white, with two distinct
black spots on the body. Fins, dorsal greyish without spots,
the other fins light in colour.
Distribution: India: Kerala: Ernakulam (Muvattupuzha
river).
Etymology: The new species is named after the river
the fish specimens were collected from.
Remarks: The new species, P. muvattupuzhaensis is
closely related to P. punctatus (Day) occurring in the
southwestern extremity of peninsular India, and Sri Lanka.
Both species have similar characters, namely complete lateral
line, and identically placed shoulder and caudal spots on the
body. However, P. muvattupuzhaensis is easily distinguished
by its more elongate body (depth 32.6% SL vs. 36.4% SL in
P. punctatus ), including a narrow caudal peduncle (12.9% SL
vs. 15.1% SL and 63.3% CL vs. 96.6% CL in P. punctatus),
fewer lateral transverse scale rows (2V2-3 vs. 4, in P. punctatus).
Dorsal fin devoid of rows of spots (vs. rows of spots invariably
present in P. punctatus). P. muvattupuzhaensis strikingly
resembles P. manipurensis Menon, Rema Devi & Viswanath
known from Manipur, in the northeast extremity of India, by
having similar features like elongate body shape, and body
spots, but differs from it in having a complete lateral line,
fewer transverse scale rows between lateral line and pelvic
fin insertion (2*/2-3 vs. 3Vi in P. manipurensis).
The affinity of the new species to P. ticto (Ham.) is
suggested by shared characters such as absence of barbels,
dorsal fin with an unbranched, osseous and serrated principal
spiny ray, and two black spots (shoulder and caudal spots)
on body. P. muvattupuzhaensis sp. nov. belongs to the ticto
group of species (Jayaram 1981) represented by P. ticto
(Ham.), a species widely distributed in the Indian sub-region.
The fishes of the ticto group exhibit considerable variation in
their characteristics, which indicates a tendency towards
speciation influenced by various isolating factors in far-flung
geographical areas, such as northeastern and southwestern
India. It is possible that these differences indicate an incipient
stage in the formation of a new species. The new species,
84
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
P. muvattupuzhaensis can be presumed to have evolved from
the parent stock of P. ticto, in southwestern peninsular India.
Key to Puntius spp. with a strong, osseous and serrated
PRINCIPAL DORSAL FIN RAY
1 . Barbels (one pair of maxillary) present 2
— Barbels absent 3
2. Body depth 5 times in SL; a black spot over anterior part of
anal base P. sharmai Menon & Rema Devi
— Body depth 4 times in SL; no black spot over anterior part of
anal base P. fraseri Hora & Misra
3. Lateral line (LI) scales 36 or more P ambassis (Day)
— LI scales less than 36 4
4. LI scales more than 30; predorsal scales 15
P. guganio (Ham.)
— LI scales less than 30; predorsal scales less than 15 5
5. Lateral transverse (Ltr) scale-rows 5 'A / 5'A
P conchonius ( Ham.)
— Ltr scale-rows fewer 6
6 Ltr scale-rows between LI and pelvic fin base 4-'A
P ticto (1 lam.)
— Ltr scale-rows between LI and pelvic fin base less than 4-‘A
7
7 LI incomplete .' 8
— LI complete 1 1
8 LI series of scales 24 or more P. gelius (Ham.)
— LI series of scales less than 24 9
9. Body with a horizontal line on flank; caudal peduncle with
two dark blotches P. shalynius Yazdani & Talukdar
— Body without a horizontal line on flank; caudal peduncle
without paired blotches 10
10 Body deep, with vertical bands; dorsal fin with a band and
without spots P. phutunio (Ham.)
— Body shallow, without bands, but with 2 spots; dorsal with
2 rows of spots
P. manipurensis Menon, Rema Devi & Viswanath
1 1 LI with 20 scales P. setnai Chhapgar & Sane
— LI with more than 20 scales 12
1 2 Two widely separated black spots on body, anterior one above
3rd LI scale and the posterior one before 1 ^ LI scale; dorsal fin
without spots P stoliczkanus { Day)
— Two widely separated black spots on body, anterior one below
3rd LI scale and the posterior one beyond 1 9th LI scale; dorsal
fin with or without spots 13
13 Ltr scale-rows 5/4; dorsal fin with rows of spots
P. punctatus (Day)
— Ltr scale-rows 4 / 2'/2-3; dorsal fin without spots
P. muvattupuzhaensis sp. nov.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. C. Hridayanathan, Head of the
School oflndustrial Fisheries, Cochin University of Science
and Technology for facilities for the completion of this work.
We extend our sincere gratitude to Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist,
ZSI, Southern Regional Station, Chennai, for identification of
the species. We thank Dr. K.C. Gopi, Scientist, ZSI, W.GF.R.S.,
Calicut, for his help in registering the type of the new species
and also for suggestions to improve the manuscript. K.S.
Jameela Beevi expresses her sincere thanks to the UGC, for
giving her a Teacher Fellowship.
REFERENCES
Day, F. (1865): The Fishes of Malabar, London. Repr. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Pp. 214-215.
Day, F. (1875-1878): The fishes of India: being a natural history
of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters
of India, Burma and Ceylon. London. Repr. Today and
Tomorrow Book Agency, New Delhi, xx + 778 pp.,
195 pis
Day, F. ( 1 889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma.
Fishes, 1 . Taylor and Francis. London. 548 pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. A Handbook. Govt, of India,
i-xxii, 1-475, pis. XIII.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The fresh water fishes of Indian Region. Narendra
Publishing House. Delhi, 471 pp.
Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Check list - Fresh water fishes of India.
Zoological Survey of India, Occ. Pap, No. 1 75, pp 366.
Menon, A.GK., K. Rema Devi & W. Viswanath (2000): A new species
of Puntius (Cyprinidae: Cyprininae) from Manipur, India.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 263-268.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and
adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
Vol. I: 373-379.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
85
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
86-88
A NEW FISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS GARRA HAMILTON-BUCHANAN
(CYPR1NIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
W. VlSHWANATH2’3 AND K. SHANTA DEVI2
'Accepted March, 2003
"Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
"Email: vnath54@yahoo.co.in
A new cyprinid fish of the genus Garra is described from the Khuga river of Churachandpur district of Manipur state,
India. The species differs from Garra lissorhynchus (McClelland) in having a smaller number of: scales in lateral line
(30-3 1 vs. 33-34), lateral transverse scale count (3/1/3 vs. 4/1/3), pre-dorsal scales (1 1-12 vs. 14), gill rakers (6 vs. 12).
The fish also differs from Garra rupecula (McClelland) in having a smaller number of: gill rakers (6 vs. 8), scales on
lateral line (30-3 1 vs. 34) and also in the presence of scales on the back. G. rupecula is characterised by the absence of
scales on the pre-dorsal region. The new species also differs from both the species under comparison in its colour
banding pattern on the caudal fin.
Key words: Garra, new species, Lissorhynchus complex, Manipur
INTRODUCTION
Menon (1964) reviewed the genus Garra Hamilton-
Buchanan, and recognised 37 species. The important
character of the genus is the possession of suctorial disc
on the ventral surface of the head, just behind the mouth.
Most of the species inhabit rapid running waters and
adapt to the substratum, by means of the horizontally placed
paired fins, especially the pectorals (Menon 1964). This
genus is widely distributed in the hill streams of Manipur,
India.
Hora (1921) described two new species, G. abhoyai
and G. naganensis from the State and also recorded G nasuta
(McClelland). Menon ( 1 964) while revising the genus Garra,
considered G. abhoyai Hora to be a synonym of G rupecula
(McClelland). Vishwanath et al. ( 1 987) recorded a Burmese
form G. gra\>elyi (Annandale) and an Assamese form G. kempi
Hora from the State. Vishwanath and Sarojnalini (1988)
described G. manipurensis from the Manipur river.
Vishwanath (1993) reported only three species of Garra in
the Lissorhynchus complex, namely G. lissorhynchus,
G. rupecula, mAG. manipurensis, while reviewing the genus
from Manipur. Kosygin and Vishwanath (1998) and
Vishwanath and Kosygin (2000) described G. compressus
and G. elongata respectively from the state.
In the collection of freshwater fishes of the Khuga
river in Manipur (Chindwin drainage), 1 1 specimens of Garra
which resemble species of Lissorhynchus complex were
collected. These do not fit into the description of any known
species of the genus. The fish is described here as a new
species.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Measurements and counts followed Menon (1964).
Measurements were made with dial callipers to the nearest
0.1 mm and expressed in percentage of standard length (SL)
or head length (HL). The type specimens of the new species
are deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes,
MUMF.
Garra paralissorhynchus sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )
Holotype: Female. MUMF 5054, 67.3 mm SL; Khuga river,
Churachandpur district, Manipur, India; K. Shanta Devi.
25.vii.2000.
Paratypes: Sex not determined. MUMF-5041, 57.3 mm
SL; MUMF-5053 & 5055, 2 exs. 58.6, 58.2 mm SL, 3.V.2000;
MUMF-5074, 63.4 mm SL, 2.xi.2000; MUMF-508 1 & 5094,
2 exs. 59.7, 60 mm SL, 10.iv.2000; MUMF-5 103-5 106, 4 exs.,
53.7-63.4 mm SL, 2 1 . vii i .2002. Same collection data as
Holotype.
Sexual dimorphism: None.
Fig. 1 Garra paralissorhynchus sp. nov
Table 2: Comparison of Garra paralissorhynchus with related species [Readings are: Mean (range)]
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
87
anterior toW-shaped band
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 1: Morphological characters of
Garra paralissorhynchus sp. nov.
Holotype
MUMF
5054
N = 1
Paratypes
MUMF 5041 , 5053, 5055, 5074
5081, 5094, 5103-5106
N = 10
Standard
67.3
53.7-63.4
In % of SL
Mean (Range) ±S.D
Depth of body
257
24 1 (19 3-25 0) ±2 2
Length of Head
23.2
24 1 (20 0-26 8) ±2.0
Predorsal length
In % of HL
51.1
51 4 (43 9-55.3) ±3.6
Head width
81.4
82.1 (75.8-87.7) ±3.4
Head height
70 5
68.9 (64 8-71.9) ±2.6
Snout length
51.9
49 3 (46 8-57.7) ±18
Eye diameter
17.9
20 4 (17.2-22.7) ± 19
Interorbital space
51.9
50 4 (43 6-55 3) ±3.5
Pectoral fin length
93.6
94 1 (88.2-101 .7) ±4 8
Disc length
34 6
36.4 (33 3-41 9) ±4 0
Caudal peduncle length
62 8
56.4 (46 9-62 6) ±5 6
Disc width in head width
606
56 8 (54 2-59.8) ±19
Disc length in disc width
70.1
72.7 (67.1-77.1) ±3.1
Caudal peduncle height
in its length
105.1
112.3 (103 1-131 4) ±91
Space of V-A origins in
V origin-caudal fin
61.1
58.8 (56.5-60.4) ±1.4
Space of Vent- A
origins in V-A origins
29 7
28 8 (25.0-30.8) ±2.5
Diagnosis: A species of Garra with the following
combination of characters: no transverse groove and
proboscis on the snout, scales absent on chest and belly, a
dark streak near the free margin of the dorsal fin, a thin and
light black W-shaped band on the posterior half of the caudal
fin and one or two dark vertical lines anterior to the W-shaped
band, lateral line scales 30-3 1 ; pre-dorsal scales 11-12; lateral
transverse scales 3/1/3, depth of body 19.3-25.0% of SL; caudal
peduncle width 103.1-13 1 .4% of its length, gill rakers 6.
Description: D ii, 6; Pi, 1 1 ; V i, 7; Aii, 4; C. 9+8; L.l. 30-
3 1 ; L.tr. 3/1/3. Pre-dorsal scales 11-12. Body short, rounded;
head moderately compressed, snout semicircular, blunt
without transverse groove and proboscis, a few tubercles
present on snout and cheeks, inter-orbital region slightly
convex. Barbels two pairs, one rostral and one maxillary, both
shorter than the diameter of eyes. Oral disc well-developed,
scales absent on chest and belly. Fins yellowish-white. Dorsal
fin with a dark streak near the free margin, a thin and light
black W-shaped band on the posterior half of the caudal fin
with one or two vertical lines of black spots anterior to the W-
shaped band, caudal fin slightly emarginate, gill rakers 6.
Proportional measurements are given in Table 1 .
Colour in formalin: Body dark grey, yellowish-white
ventrally. Scales on sides of the body orange. A dark spot at
the upper angle of the gill opening. Dorsal fin with a broad
transverse black bar near the free margin. Caudal fin with a
thin and light W-shaped dark band with lines of black spots
anterior to it. Fins yellowish-white.
Etymology: The species is named so for its similarity to
G lissorhynchus (McClelland) in having a W-shaped dark
band on its caudal fin.
Distribution: India: Khuga river, Churachandpur district,
Manipur (Chindwin basin).
Discussion: Garra paralissorhynchus sp. nov. is similar
to Garra lissorhynchus in having a snout without transverse
groove and proboscis; naked chest and belly; a black bar
near the free margin of dorsal fin and a caudal fin with a thin,
light W-shaped dark band at the posterior end. However, it
can be easily distinguished from the latter in having smaller
number of: scales on lateral line (30-31 vs. 33-34), and pre-
dorsal region ( 1 1-12 vs. 14), lateral transverse scale count (3/
1/3 vs. 4/1/3), and smaller number of gill rakers (6 vs. 12). The
new species has a deeper body (24. 1 vs. 2 1 .0% of SL), deeper
head (68.9 vs. 67. l%of HL; and wider caudal peduncle (1 12.3
vs. 72.2% of its length). It also differs from Garra rupecula in
having: scales on the back (rupecula does not have scales in
the mid-dorsal streak in the pre-dorsal region), smaller number
of: gill rakers (6 vs. 8), scales on lateral line (30-3 I vs. 32-34).
The new species also differs from both the species under
comparison in its colour banding pattern on the body and
caudal fin, as it has a vertical dark band anterior to the W-
shaped bands. Thus, the new species is a member of the
lissorhynchus complex, and may have evolved from a common
ancestor. The comparison between the three species is given
in Table 2.
REFERENCES
Hora, S.L. (1921): Indian cyprinoid fishes belonging to the genus
Garra with notes on related species from other countries. Rec
Ind. Mus. 22: 633-687.
Menon, A.GK. (1964): Monograph of the cyprinid fishes of the genus
Garra Hamilton. Mem. Ind. Mus 14(4): 173-260.
V ishwanath, W. (1993): On a collection of fishes of the genus Garra
Hamilton from Manipur, India with description of a new species.
J. Freshwater Biol. 5(1): 59-68.
Vishwanath, W. & Sarojnalini, Ch. (1988): Anew cyprinid fish, Garra
manipurensis, from Manipur, India. Japanese J. Ichthyol. 35(2):
124-126.
L. Kosygin & W. Vishwanath (1998): A new cyprinid fish Garra
compressus from Manipur, India, India. J. Freshwater Biol.
10(1-2): 45-48.
Vishwanath, W. & L. Kosygin (2000): Garra elongata. a new species
of the subfamily Garrinae from Manipur, India (Cyprinidae,
Cypriniformes). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3): 408-414.
Vishwanath, W., H.T. Singh, O. Shashikumar & M. Gonchandra (1987):
First records of freshwater fishes, Garra gravelyi and G kempt
in Manipur. Indian J. Fish 34(3): 362-364.
88
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
89-92
REVIEWS
1. THE WAY OF THE TIGER: NATURAL HISTORY AND CONSERVATION OF THE
ENDANGERED BIG CAT, 2002. By K. Ullas Karanth. Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore.
Pp. 132, Size: 26 x 24 cm. Hardback, Price: Rs. 495/-.
The Tiger is an icon for the conservation movement in
India. During the last 50 years, more than a dozen books have
been written about this magnificent animal - fortunately books
on saving tigers have replaced shikar books. Dr. K. Ullas
Karanth is one of the leading experts on the Tiger and its
habitat. An engineer by education, he has devoted more than
two decades to unravel the mysteries of tiger life. He obtained
his Ph.D. studying predator-prey relationships in the famous
Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka. He is an employee of
the Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, but lives and
works in India.
the way of the tiger shows Ullas Karanth’s erudition
and love of his subject. It is full of profound statements,
based on the sound scientific knowledge of the author. The
book has 14 chapters, with catchy titles, for example, ‘Dressed
to Kill’, ‘Solitary, But Not Alone’, and ‘The Enemy We Admire’.
The lavishly brought out book is profusely illustrated with
pictures of the Tiger, but I suspect that many pictures have
been taken in captivity. Nonetheless, they are admirable. My
favourite picture is on page 41, of a Siberian Tiger walking
cautiously on obviously thin ice. Is it completing its future?
The book ends with the predictable question: Can we
save the Tiger? I quote from Ullas Karanth’s statement in the
Introduction (p. 8) “There is no sure-fire way of predicting
how successful we will ultimately be, but the more sensibly
we act now, the greater is the chance that the tiger will survive
the twenty-first century. Mere doomsday prophecies,
however well-intentioned, discourage rational conservation
action, and may be harming rather than helping the tiger’s
cause. My view is that, on the basis of biological facts and
historical background, the tiger is not yet a lost cause”.
I think the Tiger (and other wildlife) can be saved on the
basis of effective conservation measures based on good
science. And, ultimately, when it comes to basics, Tiger and
Tiger habitats have good reasons to be protected because
when “we protect tigers forests from logging, overgrazing,
fires and conversion to cropland, we are not indulging in a
luxury that we cannot afford in a poverty-stricken,
overpopulated world. We are, in fact, protecting the soil-
water resources that sustain millions of people in Asia”. This
is enough reason to protect the Tiger and its habitats all over
its distribution range. This book would help in securing the
future of the Tiger, as the proceeds from its sale will be used
for Tiger conservation.
■ ASAD R. RAHMAN1
2. THE RETURN OF THE UNICORNS: THE NATURAL HISTORY AND CONSERVATION
OF THE GREATER ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS, 2003. By Eric Dinerstein. Columbia
University Press, New York. Pp. 316, Size: 23 x 15.5 cm. Flardback, Price not stated.
This book is a part of the Biology and Resource
Management Series, published by the Columbia University,
USA. It praises the author for being “directly responsible for
the recovery of the greater one-horned rhinoceros in Royal
Chitwan National Park in Nepal”. With such a statement on
the dust jacket, it is to be expected that not much importance
is given to the effective and praiseworthy initiatives taken by
the Nepal government since 1 954, much before Eric Dinerstein
came on the scene in 1972. The language of the book is
patronizing, and the underlying message is that if the great
American scientists had not been to Nepal, the rhinoceros
would have disappeared, because the poor Nepalese do not
know how to take effective conservation measures. The fact
is that despite poverty and pressure on land, the Nepal
government has taken many conservation measures, setting
an example for many western countries.
As far as science is concerned, the book is fine. Eric
has collated all the available literature on the Greater One-
horned Rhinoceros and embellished it with his own research.
It is interesting to know that in zoos, males are bigger, but no
size difference is seen in nature (p. 77). Females have longer
horns, and in males, the incisors are the major weapons of
offence (p. 76). The book is well designed and edited. It has a
separate method section, which does not interfere with the
flow of the general text. Headings and subheadings also help
in sectioning this 316-page book. Eric has combined passion
with scientific vigour. However, his condescending attitude
shows everywhere, especially in Part 111 of the book where he
has suggested various conservation measures. On page 247,
he mentions that the World Wildlife Fund-United States (the
REVIEWS
USA section of WWF has not changed its name to World
Wide Fund for Nature), in collaboration with the Wildlife
Conservation Society (based in New York), has identified 1 59
tiger conservation units. Surprisingly, there is no mention of
the studies done by the Wildlife Institute of India in
identifying such conservation units. On page 248, he
mentions the important role of multilateral and bilateral funding
agencies, international conservation organisations,
foundations, individual philanthropists, international zoo
community, and national governments in financing large-scale
conservation. Fie has failed to mention that if the Washington-
based World Bank, which has been funding and still is funding
some of the biggest nature destruction projects in the world
(including Nepal), stops funding such projects and takes a
more conservation-based approach to development, perhaps
we would not require these multilateral and bilateral funding
agencies and their ‘experts’ for conservation initiatives in
developing countries. I am sure the Nepalese are quite capable
of looking after their Greater One-homed Rhinoceros. In one
place, Eric has accepted that “a country like Nepal, extremely
poor and lacking in infrastructure, is restoring endangered
species populations. Other countries, both developed and
undeveloped, have no excuse not to try.” 1 hope Eric will
spread the message of conservation of large mammals in his
own country, which is incidentally the largest consumer of
wildlife products, and where hunters and ranchers oppose
the introduction of so-called dangerous animals, like the
Timber Wolf, in wilderness areas. The consumer country in
which Eric lives should also learn to live with nature - the
way he wants the poor Nepalese to live with the Tiger and the
Rhinoceros. In the revised edition, perhaps this could become
the main message of this book.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3. LIFE AT THE ZOO: BEHIND THE SCENES WITH THE ANIMAL DOCTORS, 2004.
By Phillip T. Robinson. Columbia University Press, New York. Pp. 293, Size: 21.5 x 17.5 cm.
Hardback, Price not stated.
life at the zoo seems to hold little promise in its initial
stages of examination. There is every indication that this is
just another first-person account of some retired director or
veterinarian’s experiences, the kind of book that I “inhaled”,
as one would a favourite food, when I was new to the zoo
profession. But I am old now, and cynical, so chapters entitled
“Intern at the Zoo”, “Growing Pains”, “Zoo Babies” give ME
pains and I groaned every time I thought of actually reading
the book before writing this review. So I put it off, and when
I could do so no longer, tried my tested and true tricks for
writing a book review without reading the book, tricks well
practiced since high school. I read the last chapter, entitled
“What a Zoo Should be”. To my surprise, I couldn’t put it
down. Dr. Robinson has summed up almost everything I and
a good part of the world’s zoo community spent the better
part of 18 months writing in a participatory manner for the
World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy. Then I read
the next to last chapter, entitled “Ethical Captivity: Animal
Well-Being in Zoos”, and again, found it to be very good
reading indeed.
Then 1 sampled the Introduction where Dr. Robinson
states his purpose for writing the book: “to share some hard-
earned insights into the dynamics of caring for and conserving
wild animals in captivity, as well as to consider a few broader
implications for how we view nature and animals in our
society,” I realised then that Robinson was, of course, writing
for the public, and it was necessary to explain many things
about how it is with zoos, day by day, before going for the
kill: explaining zoos’ take on ethics and welfare, and wildlife
conservation in a way that would permit readers to understand
the “big picture” of zoo management and its future, and
perhaps change some of their biases and old ideas.
Robinson says “This book will not tell you how to run
a zoo, but it may give you a better idea of what to be pleased
or perplexed about when you visit one in the future.” And
that it does. I would say that many zoo managers and
veterinarians and policy makers, particularly in regions of the
world where the zoos are not very good, could learn quite a
lot about how to run a zoo from this book. Certainly the public
and even conservationists (who think they know all about
zoos, but don’t) will have an excellent background on which
to base a zoo visit and a framework in which to shape their
attitudes and opinions, if they are willing to learn. I learned
something - many things - from this book, including
particularly how very much veterinary medicine and animal
welfare have improved in the latter decades. For example,
Dr. William Homaday, Director of the Bronx Zoo in the early
years, objected to isolating newly arrived primates in a
quarantine and acclimatization period upon their arrival, stating
that “monkeys could be replaced when needed and did not
justify the labour and expense of the proposal” (p. 23).
Although this volume may be of particular interest to
Americans, having somewhat more about American zoo history
and management than that of other countries, it is clear that
most aspects of zoo management and politics are quite similar
anywhere you go.
90
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
REVIEWS
Directors and veterinarians very often clash, for
example, a phenomenon I noticed since two decades ago in
India. Robinson comments (dryly) that it was the “natural
order of things that veterinarians were predestined to impinge
upon well-established territories.” Although vets are needed,
wanted, revered and feared, they are also resented, and
Robinson describes this brilliantly. Vets feel that no
institutional priorities should be more important than animal
health, and their demands for better equipment, facilities for
the animals - items which are prophylactic are often resented.
Also (good) vets won’t be happy concentrating merely on
sick animals; they want to poke their noses into the condition
of the healthy ones as well, thinking (rightly) that simple
health problems ignored today, end up as complex and
possibly fatal later. As Robinson is a veterinarian, his book
settles quite a few scores of that profession, and he is spot
on.
Throughout the book Robinson touches on almost
every possible subject of interest or importance to zoos:
history, management, medicine, nutrition, hand-rearing
baby animals, zookeepers, zoo exhibits and housing,
immobilisation, education, chimpanzee tea parties, docents
(volunteers), visitors (and their immense variety of insanity),
ethics, welfare, legislation, associations, conservation,
etc.
An example of Robinson’s wise comments on zoodom
is his railing at the hypocrisy and irony of the horror zoo
personnel have today of the word “cage”. In the modern
zoo. animals don’t live in “cages”; they should have “captive
environments”, “zoo habitats”, and “captive ecosystems”.
While the theory behind this is all too right - sterile cold
concrete and iron boxes are not good homes for wild animals
-nonetheless, says Robinson, “when all is said and done ...
a “cage or habitat” represents the physical world that limits
an animal’s resources. A poorly designed or managed
“captive ecosystem is no better than a lousy cage”! Having
seen hundreds of “open moated” horrors which favour the
visitor with a beautiful diorama while ignoring the myriad
needs of the animal (a large space doesn’t necessarily make
a “happy” or stress-less animal), I hope some of the designers
in South Asia will read this book.
It is in the chapters “Ethical Captivity - Animal Well-
Being in Zoos” and “What a Zoo Should Be: and Ought Not
to Be” that Robinson brings together much of the information
disseminated in the previous sections. Ethical Captivity
reviews the history of animal welfare in the zoo, including
the various actions and activers, which brought it into being
(he gives much credit to the American Animal Welfare Act
and to the American Zoo Association accreditation process
and to veterinarians for American Zoos). He reviews the major
animal rights organisations, fairly I believe, and also the grey
areas where even zoo personnel (such as zookeepers in
particular) do not like what their superiors at the policy level
do in zoos. He discusses the difficulty of establishing a
uniform standard of welfare when human perceptions of what
is right and wrong for animals differs so much ... personal
bias, religion, habit.
Likewise, there is no exact method for assessing “well-
being” of zoo animals. Robinson relates the example of the
accepted norm of exhibiting animals in family or social groups
rather than as solitary animals. Yet, he points out, this is
sometimes in conflict with the natural habit of some animals
to be solitary and only meet at certain times for breeding and
infant rearing.
An example of this sort of irony from India fits nicely
here. It seems that a bear rescue facility (these come under
Central Zoo Authority now) was about to be censured and
made to remodel its housing because they did not have
individual cubicles for holding and feeding, as demanded by
the Norms and Standards of the Zoo Act. However, the
concerned Sloth Bears were those “dancing bears” which
had been surrendered by their owners who had had them in
company since the time they were cubs. These bears could
not bear to be isolated. The facility had learned this the hard
way with many miserable bears until they put them into
groups, and that is what made them happy. No fighting, no
competition. Fortunately, the CZA Member Secretary was
sensible and open-minded, and made an exception for this
case.
Training animals for shows, roadside zoos, bad city
zoos, when People for Ethical Treatment of Animals was
almost upstaged by People for Eating Tasty Animals, surplus
animals, euthanasia, and more are covered in this potent
chapter. Euthanasia is a hot topic in India today, when zoos
refuse to give a merciful death to infirm and incurable animals.
Culling, of course, is unheard of in India where it is better to
release surplus animals into the wild where one can’t see
what becomes of them, or what their presence does to the
resident wildlife or to the habitat, than to simply put them
down.
Robinson makes a very good point about conservation,
which leads into the final chapter when he discusses zoo
publicity efforts and a gullible press and public have eaten
whole isolated reports of a few successful reintroductions.
Robinson opines, very likely correctly, that “this has served
to lull some of the public into a false sense of complacency,
relying too much upon the potential of zoos as safety nets
for species extinctions”!
The last chapter describes modern conservation
efforts, which do not rely so much on reintroducing
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
91
REVIEWS
threatened or extinct species in the wild, as on providing
funds for field work, research and habitat protection and on
partnering with a variety of environmental, conservation and
wildlife organisations to prevent extinction on the ground
rather than fix extinction in the zoo. Small grant programmes
help wildlife and habitat research, education and encouraging
local capacity building. Zoos that wish to make a difference
in conservation can pool resources so that both large and
small, rich and poor zoos can collaborate and become involved
in habitat preservation and field research.
Robinson describes the Canada goose as an “excellent
example” of collaboration and its value and efficiency. These
geese - travelling in a ‘V’ shape - are able to fly longer
distances and more swiftly because of the aerodynamics of
formation flying. The lead goose surrenders his turn at the
head of the formation when tired, and another takes over so
that the group can fly distances that a single goose could
never manage alone. Robinson suggests “flying in formation,
so to speak. Zoos and zoo people can go much farther together
than their individual ever could in contributing to wildlife
conservation.”
Many lessons and much entertainment for all in this
fascinating, frank and fair-minded book.
Robinson is a board certified veterinarian who began
his training as a wildlife biologist at Michigan State University,
conducting WWF sponsored graduate work in the rainforests
of West Africa (Liberia and Sierra Leone). He was involved in
the field feasibility studies in eastern Liberia that lead to the
creation of Sapo National Park and has published numerous
papers on the clinical problems of zoological species and on
wildlife conservation in West Africa. He began his zoo career
as a zoo vet as an intern at the San Diego Zoo and directed
the Veterinary programme for a decade. Following that he
was Director of veterinary services and animal resources at
UC, San Diego; his responsibilities included a large biomedical
research and training program. He was a founding member of
the American College of Zoological Medicine and past
president of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
Robinson has served on the design team for a number of
important zoo veterinary hospitals in the USA. Throughout
his career he has looked at the zoo, its denizens both two and
four footed, its bosses and visitors and even its enemies with
unsentimental, perceptive and “fair-critical” eyes, always
noting both good and bad.
■ SALLY WALKER
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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
93-139
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. DID TIGERS PANTHERA TIGRIS TIGRIS PASS THROUGH THE INDUS DELTA?
Maps and documents dealing with the former range of
the Tiger in Pakistan show its known historical occurrence
often not further south than 28.8° N nor further north than
30.0° N, and date hardly more than a hundred years back.
With three locations for the Tiger along the Sutlej on his map,
Mazak ( 1 983) concluded that the species had surely advanced
here from North India, although there is a gap of about 500 km
towards his next Tiger location, further east along latitude
30.0° N. Today’s global tiger distribution maps are often based
on Mazak’s interpretation (Fig. 1 a). This note will make evident
that
- tigers in Pakistan were formerly found as far north as
33.8° N and that
- tigers might have also found their way via Kachchh
from India into Pakistan and inhabited the Indus Delta as far
south as 24.0° N (Fig. lb).
But at the beginning of the 20"' Century the doomed
Tiger population in Pakistan was already totally isolated
(Fig. lc).
Newall (1887, p.l 83) hunted in 1 854 in the jungle at the
foothills near Village Noorpore, between Rawalpindi and
Murrie, and mentioned “there were also one or two tigers
near Noorpore, but we never came across them. One, however,
was shot over water by Palliser”. Burton (1952, p.849)
wrote “in 1852 a tiger killed an officer of the 98"' Regiment
23 miles from Rawalpindi.” (Coordinates of Rawalpindi: 33.7°
N,73.1°E).
At the time when Alexander (about 325 BP) visited India,
the Indus Delta was located further east and the coastline of
the Arabian Sea extended further north-east into the navigable
Eirinos Bay with the Samara Sea (25.0° N, 69.4° E) at the mouth
of the easternmost Indus branch. Possibly due to tectonical
forces, connected with the uplift of the Indian subcontinent
and the raise of the Himalaya, the Indus Delta then shifted
westwards. The Eirinos Bay shrank, became more and more
dry and formed, approximately since the 1 1th Century, a salt
marsh known as Rann of Kachchh. According to Wilhelmy
(1966, 1 968), who analysed historical geographical descriptions
of two millennia, the last major westward change in the course
of the Indus happened in 1758/59, after which only one main
branch of the Indus enters the ocean, whereas earlier there
had been up to 6-7 widespread branches.
Today’s desert regions east of the Indus, Thar Desert
and Rann of Kachchh, may suggest that this arid zone was an
impenetrable barrier for most terrestrial animals. But taking
the former extent of the Indus Delta towards the east into
Fig. 1 Tiger distribution maps, based on data of Mazak (1983)
(a) Mazak’s interpretation (for the time around 1900)
(b) new interpretation (for several hundred years ago)
(c) new interpretation (for the time around 1 900)
with isolated tiger population in Pakistan
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
account, a rich vegetation belt with the function of a
zoogeograph ical east-west bridge comes into consideration.
Thus, it is possible that the Tiger once found its way west
through the old Indus Delta, and went from there further north
along the Indus.
The following lines summarise some additional
information regarding the former distribution of the Tigers
and its prey in Pakistan.
According to Roberts (1997), the middle and lower
Indus (in Punjab and Sind) were once surrounded by a
continuous belt of tamarisk Tamar ix dioica jungle four to
twelve miles wide, and tall cane grass Saccharum munja,
inhabited by wild boar and hog deer. A few hog deer are still
found on some tamarisk-studded islands in the mouth of the
Indus. Therefore, there are good reasons to believe that
Tigers, in conformity with the distribution of their prey base,
existed once throughout the riverine tracts, including the
Indus Delta.
As known from the Ganga Delta, Tigers have no problem
living in a brackish and marshy environment. Compared to
the Ganga Delta, the Indus Delta is not merely a mangrove
forest, but consists, besides a small mangrove belt along the
coastline, predominantly of tall grass and dense tamarisk
thickets. While surveying the Indus Delta in 1837, Carless
(1838) wrote: “In the woods wild hogs abound, and there is
also an animal very common in the interior, which from the
description, must be the elk ... A lynx and a leopard were
seen, and tiger-cats three or four times.” His ‘elks’ were
obviously hog deer and his ‘lynx’ was maybe a caracal. The
old term ‘tiger-cat’ was usually used for lesser cats and could
mean here the fishing cat. Perhaps Carless’ leopard was a
tiger, as leopards are not reported by Roberts (1997) from
these environs.
Murray ( 1 884): “In Sind, the tiger happily is not common.
It is found in the Khairpur State [northern boundary at 28.5°
N, southern boundary at 26.0° N], but there are not many
records of its causing destruction. In Lower Sind nothing is
heard of it. From Sukkur (27 .7° N) upwards it is said to
occasionally issue from its cover, which is the dense fringe of
tamarisk bushes and long grass along the banks of the river,
visit the cultivated parts and carry away stray cattle.” Langley
( 1 860, p. 1 52) wrote: “In Upper Sind tigers are rarely seen on
the left bank of the river, but in Hyderabad country they are
frequently met with, and many of the poor beaters were their
victims in the grand battues.” Hyderabad country is located
south of Khairpur State in Lower Sind and includes the region
of the Indus Delta (towards 24.0° N).
Burnes ( 1 834b, p. 141) admired a Tiger hunt of some
sheikhs in Punjab and Newall (1887, p. 437) characterised
passages of the river with “the dense grassy reaches down
which a wandering tiger often strolls” when travelling down
the Sutlej towards Bahawalpur in the summer of 1848.
According to Roberts (1997), who reported shootings of 1 3
tigers in Punjab by an Amir of Bahawalpur State, the last tiger
in Pakistan was shot in 1 906 a few miles below Panjnad (about
29.3° N). The last survivor in Sind was shot in 1 886 (Burton
1 952, Eates 1968).
Macnuirdo (1820, p. 215), when describing the province
of Kachchh and the countries between Gujarat and the Indus,
listed the Tiger at first position among the wild animals found
there. Burnes (1834a, p. 103) stated that tigers were present
along the Luni river in southwest Rajasthan (which falls into
the Rann of Kachchh at about 24.5° N) and Stoliczka ( 1 873, p.
226) wrote “both the lion and the tiger extremely rarely occur
as stragglers from Kathivar, they had been formerly shot in
Kachh territory, and a century ago they might have been
more common”. Campbell (1880, p. 30) believed “at the
beginning of the century, lions, tigers, and other large game
were plentiful in Cutch. But of late years, tigers and lions
have almost entirely disappeared.” According to these
deliveries a zoogeographical bridge via Kutch towards the
tiger distribution along the Indus river in the west seems to
be imaginable. This speculation becomes quite plausible when
taking the geographical changes of the delta into account.
Even today, the Indus Delta has considerable potential
as a wildlife reserve, as Mountfort (1969, p. 189) judged. In
fact, it would be the only suitable location for re-introducing
tigers into Pakistan, although it is quite illusory to believe
that high authorities as well as local communities could agree
and find ways for solving financial, technical and scientific
questions in adherence to the IUCN re-introduction
guidelines. To keep this option open, however, the ecosystem
of the Indus Delta, including the threatened hog deer
population, should be well preserved.
December 30, 2002 G. NEUMANN-DENZAU
1m Brook 8, 2432 1 Panker,
Germany.
REFERENCES
Burnes, A. ( 1 834a): Papers descriptive of the countries on the north-
west frontier of India. J. Roy. Geogr Soc. 4: 88-129.
Burnes, A. (1834b): Travels into Bokhara. Murray, London. Vol. 3.
Burton, R. (1952): A history of shikar in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc 50: 845-869.
Carless, T.G. (1838): Memoir to accompany the survey of the Delta
of the Indus, in 1837. Journ. Geogr. Soc 8: 328-366.
Campbell, J.M. (1880): Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. 5
Cutch, Palanpur and Mahi Kantha. Bombay.
Eates, K.R. (1968): An introduction to the vertebrate fauna of Sind and
94
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Khairpur State. West Pakistan Gazetteer - Sind Region. Government
of West Pakistan. Mammalia, pp. 33-52. (cited by Roberts, 1997).
Langley, E.A. (1860): Narrative of a residence at the court of Meer
Ali Moorad; with wild sports in the valley of the Indus. Hurst and
Blackett, London. Vol. 2.
Macmurdo, J. ( 1 820): An account of the province of Cutcli, and of the
countries lying between Guzerat and the river Indus. Trans. Lit
Soc. Bombay 2: 205-241.
Mazak, V. (1983): Der Tiger. Neue Brehm-Buecherei, Wittenberg. 3.
Ed. pp. 44-45.
Mountfort, G. (1969): The vanishing jungle. Collins, London.
Murray, J.A. (1884): The vertebrate zoology of Sind. Richardson,
London, pp. 24-27, 402.
Newall, D.J.F. (1887): The highlands of India. Reprinted by Logos
Press, New Delhi 1984. Vol. 2.
Roberts, T..L (1997): The Mammals of Pakistan. Oxford University
Press, Karachi. 2 ed.
Stoliczka, F. (1873): Notice on the mammals and birds inhabiting
Kachh. J. Asiatic. Soc. Beng. 41(2): 211-258.
Wilhelmy, H. (1966): Der wandemde Strom. Erdkunde 20: 265-276.
Wilhelmy, H. (1968): lndusdelta und Rann of Kutch. Erdkunde 22:
177-191.
2. AN INSTANCE OF ADOPTION IN THE INDIAN FLYING FOX
PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE)
Parental care among mammals is complex and species
specific. Diverse forms of parental care have arisen among
mammals, primarily determined by the precocity of the young.
In practically all mammals, mothers accept only their own young
for suckling and parental care. A major downside of parenting is
that when an animal cares for young, it must forgo some other
activities such as searching for food or mates (Alock 1 998). The
males of primates such as Presbytis entellus (McCann 1934)
and Presbytis eristalus (Bernstein 1968) respond to individual
infants in distress. Among bats, McCann (1940) reported an
instance in Rousettus leschenanlti, where a young one had
deserted the body of its dead mother and gone to another which
already had a suckling young one.
Mother-infant contact in some species is intense and
uninterrupted throughout the early period (Simonds 1965). In
bats, during the first few days of life, the young would be carried
during foraging flight (Griffin 1940). Mortality among bats is
highest between the onset of independent flight and the end of
the first yearoflife(Brosset 1962, Davis 1966). Social organisation
serves to minimize this mortality (Bradbury 1 977).
Communal raising of young is exhibited by some bats
(Bradbury 1977). Two to ten adult females are found to take
care of the young in the nursery roost at all times (O’Farrell
and Studier 1 973). Gopalakrishna and Badwaik ( 1 993) reported
that lactating females of Miniopterus schreibersii falginosus
and Rhinolophus ronxi visit the groups of young left behind
periodically, and suckle them on a community feeding basis.
However, in Hipposideros speoris, mother and young
recognise each other, and the mother suckles only her baby
(Gopalakrishna and Badwaik 1 993). Females of several other
bats also specifically identify young (Kulzer 1958; Nelson
1965; Pearson et al. 1952, Davis et al. 1968). Incidence of
adoption has been reported in some primates (Itani 1959,
Rowell 1963). However, instances of adoption have rarely
been observed among bats, though community raising and
community suckling have been reported.
Since 1995, the authors have been regularly observing
the feeding, roosting and breeding biology of Pteropus
giganteus in south Kerala. During April 2000, a female bat with
her attached young (B ), was recovered along with another
young ( B,), whose mother died soon. B„ the orphan, was smaller
although bom during the same season. The bats thus recovered
were housed in a netted cage ( 1 .5 x 1 x 1 m) for observation.
Initially the mother bat, with her attached young, hung on one
corner of the cage, while the orphaned young hung at the
opposite corner, vocalising continuously. The expectation was
that the female bat would be antagonistic to the orphan because
it had a baby of its own. As the orphan was in early infancy, an
attempt to hand feed it was unsuccessful. Surprisingly, the
following morning the mother bat was nursing both the young
ones - one attached to each nipple (Fig. 1 ). In fact, the mother
bat had moved with its attached young one to the corner where
the orphan was hanging.
Since then, the two young bats remained attached to
the female, exchanging nipples occasionally. After a week,
the bats were left free in a larger netted shelter (8x5x3 m),
where they could move freely and even fly. At dusk, fruits like
banana, papaya and cashew were provided with water
ad libitum. In the morning, both the young ones were closely
wrapped by the mother bat, probably a mechanism for
thermoregulation, while at night she left them and went to the
food tray. This is reflective of the wild, where mother bats
leave young ones at nursery sites while foraging.
Occasionally she carried the young ones during the night. By
the end of April, they moved independently at night and
started eating or at least biting at fruits.
In May, two more young female bats could be recovered
from the same roost, they were found attached to small plants
below the roost. These young ones (B, and B4) could also
have been born during the same season as B: and B,. B( was
larger than B3 and the two were introduced into the bat shelter.
Initially, B3 and B4 remained away from the others (Fig. 2).
At night all the young bats, except B„ carried fruits from the
food tray to different locations and fed independently, a foraging
pattern exhibited in the wild where individuals carry fruit for
consumption away from the group foraging tree. B„ which was
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
95
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : B1 the original young, and B2 the orphaned young
remaining attached to the mother bat
Fig. 2: B3 and B4, the orphans collected later, hanging separately,
while B1 and B2 remain attached to the mother bat
too small, was still earned by the foster mother during the
'foraging trips’ . Subsequently, B , and B4 started ‘roosting’ close
to the other captive bats during the day. Towards the end of
May, B4 was seen hanging close to its foster mother bat and
licking her wings and neck, after which it started feeding from
her nipple, displacing B, (Fig. 3). Subsequently all the three
young ones (B.. B, and B4) were found covered by the mother
bat’s outstretched wings. Evidently, B4 was also accepted by
the foster mother. The three young ones took turns to feed, as
only two could feed at a time, and this relationship continued.
B4 remained independent (Fig. 4).
The reason for B4 being adopted, while B, was not,
cannot be explained. Possibly B, did not approach the foster
mother, hence she did not respond. Neither did B vocalise
like Bv In the earlier instance, the foster mother moved towards
B,, quite probably in response to repeated vocalization. In
the subsequent instance, unlike B,, B4 approached the foster
mother Both the behavioural interactions resulted in adoption.
From July, the mother bat ceased to lactate and started
Fig. 3: B4 approaching foster mother bat and dislodges B2 to get
itself adopted
Fig. 4: All three young B1 , B2 and B4 taking turns to feed as B3
remains independent
tightly folding her wings around her body to prevent the
young ones from suckling, but they continued sucking the
nipple. This could be the weaning stage. Such signs of
alienation are observable in the field also, when nursing
mothers refused to feed during the same period and adult
males started chasing attached young ones from their mothers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author expresses his gratitude to the
University Grants Commission, Government of India, for
Teacher fellowship No. TFKLKE077.
December 1 7, 2002 JOSEPH M ATH AI 1
MATHEW M. OOMMEN2
Department of Zoology, University of Kerala,
Kariavattom 695 58 1 , Trivandrum, Kerala, India.
'Email: josamkar@yahoo.com
"Email: mathew_m_oommen@hotmail.com
96
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Alock, J. (1998): Parental Care. In: Animal Behaviour (Ed.: Alock, J.).
Sinauer Associates Inc. Sunderland. Massachusetts. 527 pp.
Bernstein, I. (1968): The Lutong of Kaula Selangor. Behaviour
32(1/3): 1-16.
Bradbury, J.W (1977): Social organisation and communication.
In: Biology of Bats (Ed: Wimsatt, W.A.). Academic Press, New
York. Pp. 1-72.
Brosset, A. (1962): The bats of central and western India, Part I.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 1-57.
Davis, W.H. (1966): Population dynamics of the bat Pipistrellus
subflavus. J. Mammal. 47: 383-396.
Davis, W.H., R.W. Barbour & M.D. Hassell (1968): Colonial behaviour
of Eptesicus fuscus. J. Mammal. 49: 44-50.
Gopalakrishna, A. & N. Badwaik(1993): Breeding habits and associated
phenomena in some Indian bats. Part XIV (concluded).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90(1): 1-9.
Griffin, D.R. (1940): Notes on the life histories of New England cave
bats. J. Mammal. 21: 181-187.
Itani, J. ( 1 959): Parental care in wild Japanese monkey, Macaca fuscata
fuscata. Primates 2(1): 61-93.
Kulzer, E. (1958): Untersuchen uberdie Biologie von Flughunden der
Gattung Rousettus. Z. Morphol. Oekol. Tiere 47: 374-402.
McCann, C (1934): Observations on some of the Indian langurs.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 36(3): 618-628.
McCann. C. (1940): Notes on the fulvous fruit-bat (Rousettus
leschenaulti Desm ). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 805-816.
Nelson, J.E. (1965): Behaviour of Australian Pteropodidae
(Megachiroptera). Anim Behav. 13: 544-557.
O’Farrell, M.J. & E.H. Studier (1973): Reproduction, growth and
development in Myotis thysanodes and M. lucifugus (Chiroptera:
Vespertilionidae). Ecology 54: 18-30.
Pearson, O.P., M.R. Koford & A.K. Pearson (1952): Reproduction of
the lump-nosed bat ( Corynorhinus raftnesquei) in California.
J. Mammal 33: 273-320.
Rowell, T.E. (1963): The social development of some rhesus monkeys
(1961 seminar). Pp 35-49. In: Determinants of Infant Behaviour
(Ed.: Foss, B.M.), Vol. II. Methuen, London.
Simonds, P.E. (1965): The bonnet macaque in South India.
Pp. 175-196. In: Primate Behavior (Ed: DeVore, I.) Holt.
New York.
3. NEW SITE RECORD FOR SMALL TRAVANCORE FLYING SQUIRREL
PETINOMYS FUSCOCAPILLUS FUSCOCAPILLUS FROM KARNATAKA
As part of a mammalian study, we surveyed the forests
of Brahmagiri-Makut during November 2001 and January
2002. The forests of Brahmagiri-Makut lie between 12° 5’- 12°
13' N and 75° 50’-76° 3' E, and form the southern tip of the
Western Ghats in Karnataka, in the district of Kodagu.
Elevation varies from 60 m above msl to 1 ,650 m above msl.
The area receives both southwest and northeast monsoon
and the average annual rainfall is about 6,000 mm. The region
includes three forest ranges, namely Srimangala, Makut
(Wildlife) and Makut (Reserve Forest). Srimangala and Makut
(Wildlife) are a part of the Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary.
We walked 54 km during nights with about 2 1 ‘spotlight
hours’. A total of five (0.19 animals/spot-hour) Small
Travancore Flying Squirrels were sighted in the western
slopes of the Makut (Wildlife) and Makut (Reserve Forest)
ranges. No animal was sighted in the Srimangala range,
adjacent to Makut. The animals were located up to 200 m
above msl. Local people were also interviewed for more
information on the species. Local people from the western
side of these hills in the adjoining state of Kerala reported
having sighted this species in their coconut and cashew nut
gardens. Since this species raids cashew gardens during the
crop season to feed on cashew kernel, it is hunted by the
locals, who also eat its meat.
Two species of flying squirrels are described from
Peninsular India (Prater 1 993): the Small Travancore Flying
Squirrel Petinomys fuscocapillus fitscocapillus and the Large
Brown Flying Squirrel ( Petanrista philippensis). The Large
Brown Flying Squirrel occurs throughout Peninsular India,
whereas the Small Travancore Flying Squirrel is believed to
be restricted to some parts of the Western Ghats. Kurup
(1989) rediscovered the Small Travancore Flying Squirrel in
coconut groves in coastal Kerala, after a gap of 70 years.
Ashraf et al. (1993) conducted a survey of flying squirrels in
the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu and
Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka. The Small Travancore
Flying Squirrel was recorded only from the Indira Gandhi
Wildlife Sanctuary. We have also surveyed the rainforests of
Sirsi-Honnavara region north of Sharavati river, and found
that the species was absent. The ex-hunters and active
hunters also reported that the species was never sighted in
the region. Therefore, the sighting of this species in
Brahmagiri-Makut is the first report from the forests of
Karnataka.
It may be seen from the available literature that this
species has only been sighted from three locations so far. To
understand its current distribution and status, further surveys
are required along the coastal forests and western slopes of
the Western Ghats.
December 17, 2002 H.N. KUMARA
MEWA SINGH
Biopsychology Laboratory,
University of Mysore,
Mysore 570 006, Karnataka,
India.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
97
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Ashraf, N.V.K., A. Kumar & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993): On the relative abundance of two sympatric squirrels of Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist Soc. 90: 158-162.
Kurup, GU. (1989): Rediscovery of the small Travancore flying squirrel. Oryx 23: 2-3.
Prater, S.H. (1993): The Book of Indian Animals, 4,h impression. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.
4. A CASE OF TOTAL ALBINISM IN THE FIVE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRREL
FUNAMBULUS PENNANTI WROUGHTON IN SINDHUDURG DISTRICT,
MAHARASHTRA STATE
Albinism in wild rodent species is a rare occurrence,
though it has been reported in some cases such as Cremnomys
blanfordi (Rajagopalan 1967), Bandicota indica , Rattus
rattus (Pradhan 1975) and Funambulus permcmti (Chaturvedi
and Ghose 1 984). Harrison ( 1 950) has also dealt with albinism
as well as melanism in rodent species. Apart from albinism,
Pradhan ( 1 975 , 1 993 ) and Bhat ( 1 979) have reported occurrence
of white patches on thoracic and inguinal regions in the
species of Rattus , Bandicota , Mus and Golunda. Pradhan
and Mithel (1981) indicated possible genetic control for
occurrence of white patch in Rattus rattus rufescens.
Albinism in Five-striped palm squirrel has been reported
from the erstwhile Oudh, Uttar Pradesh (Agrawal and
Chakraborty 1979) and Chandigarh (Chaturvedi and Ghose
1984) in India. Since then, no specific report of albinism in
this Indian rodent species is available. In November 2001, a
team from the Zoological Survey of India, Pune visited different
areas of Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra State, to conduct a
status survey on the Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet Collocalia
unicolor (Jerdon). The team came across a live albino form of
a squirrel species. Observing through a pair of 7 x 50
binoculars, we noticed that the individual was white with
faint red spots, narrow stripes on the flanks, pink eyes and
yellowish forehead. Two species of striped squirrels have
been reported from this region (Ellerman 1961): 1 . Three-striped
Jungle Squirrel Funambulus tristriatus with three stripes and
a distinct red colouration in the inguinal region and on the
ventral side of the tail and 2. Five-striped Palm Squirrel
Funambulus pennanti with five stripes and no red colouration
in the inguinal region and below the tail. The F. pennanti
specimen studied by Chaturvedi and Ghose (1984) from
Chandigarh was a spotless white. One of us (MSP) identified
the live albino squirrel, photographed near Deogad Fort, as
Funambulus pennanti Wroughton (Photographic evidence
provided by the authors - Eds). The squirrel was seen moving
on a rocky wall of the fort in the morning hours of November
22, 2001. Deogad Fort (16° 23' N, 73° 21' E) is situated very
close to the Arabian Sea in the Deogad taluka, Sindhudurg
district, Maharashtra State.
After a while, AM and RMS spotted a solitary albino
young (hardly a foot away from where the adult was first
sighted), which quickly moved into the nesting site, in an
inaccessible rocky crevice, depriving us of a photographic
opportunity. Further attempts to locate both the individuals
were futile. Hutt (1969) considered albinism as an indication
of infertility. However, in the present case, sighting of an
albino young with an albino adult indicates the likelihood of
a naturally breeding albino population of F. pennanti in the
wild.
The present report of albinism in F. pennanti is probably
the third from India. Albinism is known to occur when the
genes for pigmentation fail to be expressed, and its occurrence
in the wild is rare.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata for facilities and encouragement.
December 17, 2002 ANIL MAHABAL
R.M. SHARMA'
M.S. PRADHAN
Zoological Survey of India,
Western Regional Station,
Vidyanagar, Sector 29,
Rawet Road, PCNT Post office,
Pune 41 1 044, Maharashtra, India.
‘Zoological Survey of India,
High Altitude Zoology Field Station,
Saproon, Solan 173 21 1,
Himachal Pradesh, India.
REFERENCES
Agrawal. V.C. & Chakraborty (1979): Catalogue of Mammals in the Bhat, Sudha (1979): Studies on Bombay rats. Ph.D. Thesis. Bombay
Zoological Survey of India. Rodentia Part 1. Sciuridae. Rec. zool. University, Bombay.
Surv. India 74(4): 333-481. Chaturvedi, Y. & A.K. Ghose (1984): A case of albinism in the five
98
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
striped palm squirrel, Funambulus pennanti Wroughton. Bull.
Zool. Surv. India 6(1-3): 321-322.
Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of British India. Mammalia Vol. 3.
Rodentia Part I. Govt, of India Press, New Delhi.
Harrison, J.L. (1950): The occurrence of albino and melanic rats.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 49(3): 548.
Hutt, F.B. (1969): Genetic aspects of infertility. In: Comparative
mammalian Cytogenetics (Ed. Benirschke, K.). Springer- Verlag,
New York.
Pradhan, M.S. (1975): Studies on Bombay Rats. Ph D. Thesis, Bombay
University, Bombay.
Pradhan, M.S. (1993): Rodent from Nasik District, Maharashtra State.
Rodent Newsletter 17(3-4): 1-2.
Pradhan, M.S. & M. Mithel (1981): White patch and its genetic
control in some of the Indian rodent species. J. Bombay Nat
Hist. Soc 78(1): 164-165.
Rajgopalan, P.K. ( 1 967): A case of albinism in Rattus blanfordt (Thomas)
1881, (Rodentia: Muridae). J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3): 554.
5. OCCURRENCE OF LITTLE CORMORANT PHALACROCORAX NIGER IN LADAKH
On the afternoon of August 18, 2002 between 1330-
1340 hours, an adult Little Cormorant Pha/acrocorax niger
was observed in the Indus river near Mahe (33° 05' N and 78°
02' E) in Ladakh, far to the north of its hitherto known range in
the Indian subcontinent. The bird was immediately identified
as Little Cormorant, a species familiar to the observers. The
individual was observed repeatedly diving for fish in the murky
water of the swollen river.
Ali and Ripley (1981), Grimmett el al. (1998) and
Kazmierczak and van Perlo (2000) do not mention Ladakh in
the species distribution. As far as we are aware, there are no
previous records of the Little Cormorant from Ladakh except
one recent sighting from Shey fish tanks near Leh where two
birds were sighted in the summer of 2001 (Otto Pfister pers.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan Vol. 1, 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Pp. 41-42.
Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian
comm. )
We thank Otto Pfister for providing us the recent sight
record.
December 30, 2002 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA
B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar,
Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India.
Email: sangha@datainfosys.net
R1SHAD NAOROJI
Godrej Bhavan, 4-A, Home Street,
Fort, Mumbai 400 00 1 ,
Maharashtra, India.
Email: rnaoroji@vsnl.com
Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 557.
Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of
the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, U K.
Pp. 41-42.
6. AN INSTANCE OF MORTALITY AND NOTES ON BEHAVIOUR OF
BLACK-NECKED STORKS EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS
The Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhyrtchus asiaticus
is one of the least studied large water birds in India and very
little is known of their ecology (Rahmani 1989). During
fieldwork in Etawah and Mainpuri districts, Uttar Pradesh
between September 1 999 and July 2002, 1 maintained detailed
records of all sightings of Black-necked Storks. In this note,
an instance of adult mortality and some interesting behaviours
are documented. Fieldwork was carried out in an area of c. 500
sq. km, within the towns of Etawah, Karhal, Kishni and
Baralokpur.
Mortality
In December 1999, an adult male Black-necked Stork
was found dead below electric lines at Saiphai (26° 57.063' N,
78° 57.5 1 8' E). The body had been in water for three to four
days when discovered and it was not possible to ascertain
whether the bird had been killed by collision or electrocution
with the wire. The stork had been seen to roost alone in an
adjoining field regularly and was most likely killed while
returning to the roost or flying from it to a wetland across the
road, where it used to feed during the day. The prevalence of
morning and evening fog during December in the area must
have led to the mortality. From interviews with villagers it
appeared that storks die infrequently in the area due to
collision with electric lines.
While electrocution/ collision with electric wires of large-
bodied water birds is widespread in occurrence, it has not
been previously reported for Black-necked Storks, and in
Ciconiidae, collision-related mortality has been previously
recorded only for the White Stork Ciconia ciconia (Bevanger
1 998). In fact, there is no reference in literature to any form of
adult mortality in Black-necked Storks. However, the
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
99
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
contribution of mortality due to electrocution / collision with
electric wires in the apparent decline in numbers of the species
is minimal and the phenomenon is a rarity.
Behaviour
Vocalization
Though frequently claimed to be voiceless as adults,
storks are capable of producing a large number of
vocalizations (Table 1). All species of storks are also known
to bill-clatter as adults and young birds, with the exception of
the Saddlebill Stork E. senegalensis , which seems to be
genuinely silent after fledging (Elliott 1992). Black-necked
Storks are known to call only as downy nestlings, and
regarded to be largely silent away from the nest (Ali and
Ripley 1 989, Grimmett et al. 1998).
1 observed vocalization in a Black-necked Stork juvenile
aged five to six months. A family of five Black-necked Storks
(two adults and three juveniles were observed foraging along
with a family of Sarus Cranes Grits antigone (two adults, one
sub-adult) in an inundated agriculture field in Etawah, near
Table 1: Vocalization in Storks
Stork Genera/Species
Volicalization
Adult
Young
Anastomus
Honk, croak'
-
A oscitans
Occasional deep
moans2
Ciconia
Whistles'
-
C ciconia
Poorly developed2
-
C episcopus
Silent2
-
C nigra
Guttural notes
(Nestlings)
described as
Heron-like
‘melodious’2
chatter2
Ephippiorhynchus
Largely silent away
(Downy
asiaticus
from the nest3
nestlings) Chaek
followed by
wee-wee-wee2
E. senegalensis
Weak
vocalizations at
nest3
Jabiru mycteria
Gasping, coughing
sounds during
copulation4
Leptopilos
Squeal, moo'
-
L. crumeniferus
Moo, whine, whistle,
Chitter, squawk,
hiccup'
bray'
Mycteria
Hiss, fizz'
-
M. leucocephala
Low moan at nest2
(Half-grown
nestlings) Harsh
grating or
scraping noise.2
1 - Elliott 1992; 2 - Ali & Ripley 1989; 3 - Grimmett eta/ 1998;
4-Kahl 1973
a
Fig. 1 a Posture of young bird during vocalization
b “Solicitation Display’’ of young bird
Saiphai town (26° 59.238' N; 78° 58.377' E, April 30, 2000, 1815
hrs). One of the juveniles was observed calling, peeeeeu-
peeeeu-peeeit-peeu-piu-piuu-piuu emitted as a low, mildly
warbling, high pitched whistle, starting at a much higher pitch
than the ending. The “ew” portion of the call was less
pronounced at the beginning of the call and increased
gradually and continuously. The call consisted of 10-12 notes,
followed by a very short pause, and commenced again. The
call had a curious ventriloquist quality, and required
concentration to determine the source, especially since the
juvenile stork gave no discernable movement attributable to
the call. The juvenile Black-necked Stork had its body held
horizontally to the ground, wings folded, neck bent, and bill
slightly open while calling (Fig. la). The adult male responded
to the call by walking towards the young bird, head slightly
tilted to the ground. The young bird maintained the posture
and walked away, but the intensity and pitch of the call
increased. The approach was thought to be antagonistic. This
happened twice during the entire observation, which lasted
over 30 minutes. During the second approach by the male,
the call was initiated at a very high pitch tchiiiu , which then
continued into the call described above. The female and the
other juveniles were unperturbed by the calling. It is thought
that the call was an attempt at solicitation.
100
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apt 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Kahl ( 1 973), commenting on the vocalizations of stork
nestlings, feels that soft vocalizations are sufficient for
communication in Ephippiorhynchus and Jabiru storks since
the members of these two genera are solitary nesters and the
young are not required to drown out the calls of nestlings of
adjoining nests. He also feels that the low voice of nestlings
of solitary nesters has evolved to minimize nest detection by
predators. Calling has been documented once before when a
juvenile was observed “peeping continuously” in Bharatpur’s
Keoladeo National Park (KNP) and the authors also think that
the young bird was soliciting food (Breeden and Breeden 1 982).
Solicitation display
Another behaviour observed is thought to be a non-
vocal form of solicitation, which a juvenile Black-necked Stork
was observed displaying to an adult male. Both birds were
standing on a metalled road, 7 km from Karhal town (27° 390'
N; 97° 724' E, March 30, 2000, 0815 hrs). The juvenile held the
body and the outstretched neck parallel to the ground; the
wings were open and held in line with the body, but bent at
the elbows (Fig. lb). The juvenile quivered its wings
continuously while walking towards the adult. The beak was
intermittently opened. This position (Fig. lb) was held for
almost three minutes, after which the bird assumed an alert
posture (‘Anxiety Stretch’, Kahl 1973), and then began
preening. The quivering stopped when the adult stork walked
away from the approachingjuvenile. Vocalizations could have
been prevalent during this observation, as indicated by the
opening of the bill, but the observations were done from over
200 m and the vocalizations could not be discerned. A very
similar behaviour has been noted in Saddlebill Storks where a
nestling was seen to “bend forward with body axis nearly
horizontal, wings slightly lifted and spread at wrist, tail cocked
c. 20° above line of back; giving rhythmic ‘yes’ nods of head
with bill gaped open; weak vocalizations accompanied upward
movement of head” (Kahl 1973: 25). This behaviour has been
termed ‘Begging Display’ and has been seen to be a ritualized
social behaviour that the young performs every time the adult
arrives at the nest.
For the new behaviour described above and illustrated
in Fig. lb, 1 suggest the name Solicitation Display, which differs
from Begging Display in that it is performed by juveniles
which have fledged, and is thus always performed away from
the nest. Also, while the Begging Display is performed every
time the adult comes into the nest. Solicitation Displays would
be performed only when the juvenile is in close proximity
with an adult and is unable to acquire food. In March, most of
the wetlands in the study area reduce drastically in size, and
it is possible that this display is performed only during the
dry months when the food supply is low. Breeden and Breeden
(1982) have recorded a similar behaviour accompanied by
peeping in KNP during a drought, corroborating my surmise
that this behaviour is carried out only in extreme situations.
Kahl (1973) suggested that the Black-necked Stork
(which was then Xenorhynchus asiaticus ) and the Saddlebill
Stork be combined under one genus Ephippiorhynchus , due
to their resemblance in several aspects of behaviour and
morphology [see also Wood (1984) for further discussion].
The two above-mentioned observations corroborate the
semblance in behaviour of the two species, lending further
evidence for the phylogenetic similarity proposed by Kahl
(1973) and Wood (1984).
Up-down display
Another rare behaviour observed was the courtship
display of the adults, the Up-Down display ( sensu Kahl 1973).
This behaviour is supposed to help in strengthening the pair
bond between adults. Though usually performed at the nest
during the breeding season, the behaviour was seen being
performed in a damp patch of grassland next to a main road, in
April 2000. The flapping of the wings vertically was
accompanied with bill clattering and the display lasted for
less than ten seconds. Subsequently, the birds resumed
foraging. In spite of nearly a thousand sightings of Black-
necked Storks over the entire study period, this display was
observed only once; it is definitely performed very rarely.
The observation was in April, which suggests that the
behaviour may be performed by pairs throughout the year,
though it is possible that the frequency increases prior to or
during the breeding season as opined by Kahl ( 1 973).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
These observations were carried out during fieldwork
in the Sarus Crane Project of the Wildlife Institute of India;
I thank the Director and B.C. Choudhury for facilities.
Dr. F. Ishtiaq and Dr. A.R. Rahmani provided literature and the
latter commented on a previous manuscript; I am grateful for
their help. S. Rokkam kindly donated the GPS. Facilities and
accommodation at Etawah were kindly provided by
R. Chauhan and family. Field assistance in the project rendered
by D. Singh and A. Verma is acknowledged.
December 3 1,2002 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box 1 8, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.
Present Address: C/o Wildlife Society of India,
M-52, Greater Kailash Part- 1, New Delhi 1 10 048, India.
Email: gopi@savingcranes.org
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
101
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1989): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Vol. 1. Divers to Hawks. Oxford University Press,
Bombay. Pp 93-103.
Bevanger, K. (1998): Biological and conservation aspects of bird
mortality caused by electricity power lines: a review. Biol. Conserv.
86: 67-76.
Breeden, S. & B. Breeden (1982): The drought of 1979-1980 at the
Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 79: 1-37.
Elliott, A. (1992): Family Ciconiidae (Storks). Pp. 441-442. In:
Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol 1 . (Eds: del Hoyo. J„ A.
Elliott & J. Sargatal). Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian
Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 573-574.
Kahl, M.P. (1973): Comparative ethology of the Ciconiidae. Part 6.
The Black-necked, Saddlebill, and Jabiru Storks (Genera
Xenorhvnchus, Ephippiorhynchus and Jabiru). The Condor 75:
17-27.
Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of the Black-necked Stork
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in the Indian subcontinent. Forktail
5: 99-110.
Wood, D.S. (1984): Concordance between classifications of the
Ciconiidae based on behavioural and morphological data. J. Orn.
125: 25-37.
7. RED-CRESTED POCHARD — RHODONESSA RUFINA (PALLAS) IN KACHCHH
Though a winter visitor to Pakistan and northwest
India, including the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, the Red-
crested Pochard Rhodonessa ruftna (Pallas), as far as we know,
has not been seen in Kachchh. Dr. Salim Ali’s survey of
Kachchh in 1943-44 failed to observe it. The earlier published
lists of Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka and A.C. Hume do not include
Rhodonessa ruftna in Kachchh. Ali and Ripley (1968) mention
that this diving duck is common and locally abundant,
particularly in Pakistan and northwest India. Roberts (1991)
says that it has a limited breeding range in ‘warmer steppic
latitudes in central Asia and Turkestan. It is a winter migrant
visitor to Pakistan which has now become rather rare.’
We had gone to Mandvi taluka on January 1 9, 2003 for
our annual Asian mid-winter waterbird census. On our way to
one of the count sites, we stopped at the tank of Don village,
where a fair number of ducks were present. While we watched
the ducks through our binoculars we noticed a pair of
Rhodonessa rufina amongst them. The drake was
unmistakable with his handsome plumage and red bill, and it
did not take long to identify the duck swimming beside him.
AP photographed the drake. We showed the photo to M.K.
Himmatsinhji, our mentor, who confirmed the identification
and advised us to inform the Society, hence this note.
February 24, 2003 S.N. VARU
Temple Street, Juna Vas,
Madhapur, Bhuj,
Kachchh 370 020, Gujarat, India.
N.N. BAPAT
1 8, Van Vihar Society, Bhuj,
Kachchh 370 00 1 , Gujarat, India.
T.B. CHHAYA
1, Santosh Society, Bhuj,
Kutch 370 001, Gujarat, India.
ASHWIN POMAL
Pomal Jewellers, Vokla Chowk, Bhuj,
Kutch 370 00 1 , Gujarat, India.
REFERENCES
All Salim & S.D. Ripley (1968): Handbook of the Birds of India and Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 1, Oxford University
Pakistan, Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, Bombay. Press, Karachi.
8. PREDATION BY MARSH HARRIER CIRCUS AERUGINOSUS ON CHICK
OF SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE IN KOTA, RAJASTHAN
The Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone is a
threatened species found largely in north and central India. It
is a large-bird species that has suffered a rapid population
decline in recent times as a result of widespread reduction in
the extent and quality of wetland habitats that are being
converted to agriculture fields (BirdLife International 2001,
Sundar et al. 2000).
Few ecological studies on Sarus Cranes have
examined in detail the various aspects of its breeding biology,
nest-site requirements and existing threats to breeding sites,
as also the causes of chick mortality.
Breeding biology of the Sarus Crane was studied in the
semi-arid landscape of Kota and Bharatpur districts of
Rajasthan from February 2000 to June 2002. Data on number
102
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
of eggs laid, egg-loss, number of hatchlings and hatchling
mortality was recorded. The nests were monitored till the time
the chicks reached juvenile stage and subsequently weaning
success was calculated. Six Sarus Crane families were chosen
and intensively monitored till the hatchling reached the
weaned stage. It was found that fledgling success was
affected both by natural causes such as predation, wetness
of nesting site, food availability, as well as by anthropogenic
causes such as egg robbing and prevalent agricultural
practices. Mortality of Sarus Crane recorded in the study
area for two consecutive years has been shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Mortality of Sarus Crane young in Kota district
(2000-2001)
Reasons for Mortality
Year
Total no of
chicks hatched
Dog
Marsh
Harrier
Human-
related
Unknown
2000
17
2
0
1
12
2001
34
0
1
0
16
The chosen focal-families were also examined for parent-
chick interactions using the scan sampling method. During
the course of these observations on one of the focal families,
consisting of two chicks 40 and 39 days old, an incident of
chick predation was noted. While the parents were feeding
one of the chicks, the second chick which was feeding alone
25-30 m away from the parents, was left unattended for a brief
period. A Marsh Harrier attacked this chick and repeatedly
pecked its head, causing severe injury, but flew away without
feeding on the chick. Although the harrier was clearly preying
upon on the chick, the reason for abandoning the prey is not
clear. The injured chick died within two hours and the parent
birds left the feeding area and moved away.
Predators previously recorded for Sarus Crane chicks
include jackals (Walkinshaw 1973; Ramachandran and Vijayan
1 994) and dogs (Mukherjee and Borad ,pers. obs.). Although
an observation of a male Sarus Crane calling loudly and
chasing a Marsh Harrier from its nesting territory has been
recorded previously, indicating the possibility of chick
predation by large raptors (Iqubal 1 992; Mukherjee et al. 2002),
the present study confirms and records predation by Marsh
Harrier.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Mr. S.B. Sawarkar, Director, Wildlife Institute
of India, Dehra Dun and the Chief Wildlife Warden, Rajasthan
for their help. Meena and Gopi Sundar are thanked for
comments on the manuscript.
January 2, 2003 JATINDER KAUR
B.C. CHOUDHURY
Wildlife Institute of India,
Post Box No. 18,
Dehra Dun 248 00 1 ,
Uttaranchal, India.
REFERENCES
BirdLife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife
International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge,
U.K.
Iqubal, P. (1992): Breeding behaviour in Sarus Crane Grus antigone
antigone. M.Sc. Thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India.
Mukherjee, A., C.K. Borad & B.M. Parasharya (2002): Breeding
performance of the Indian Sarus Crane in the agricultural
landscape of western India. Biological Conservation 105'. 263-
269.
Ramachandran, N.K. & V.S. Vijayan (1994): Distribution and general
ecology of the Sarus Crane ( Grus antigone) in Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2):
211-223.
Sundar, K.S.G., J. Kaur & B.C. Choudhury (2000): Distribution,
demography and conservation status of the Indian Sarus Crane
(Grus antigone antigone) in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc
97(3): 319-339.
Walkinshaw, L.H. (1973): Cranes of the world. Winchester Press.
New York.
9. THE LESSER KESTREL FALCO NAUMANNI AND AMUR FALCON
FALCO AMURENSIS IN THE GARO HILLS, MEGHALAYA, INDIA
Both the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni and Amur
Falcon F. amurensis are mainly passage migrants to India.
The Amur Falcon, which migrates in countless swarms in
autumn, is also a scarce breeder in north-eastern India (Baker
1928; Samant et al. 1995). Both species are often seen together
and migrate on a broad front, with confirmed sightings
throughout many areas in the Indian subcontinent. Visual
records are mainly between October and early-January, but
little is known of this large-scale migration involving
thousands of birds. The weather pattern that triggers these
migrations is also not known. Ali and Ripley (1978) had collated
all available records till 1970. With the upsurge of interest in
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
103
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
bird watching and ornithology, additional sightings have
recently been recorded from Wynaad, Kerala (Zacharias and
Gaston 1993); Sri Lanka (Hoffmann 1996); Corbett Tiger
Reserve, Uttaranchal (Naoroji 1999); Kaziranga National Park,
Assam (Barua and Shanna 1999); Dera Ismail Khan, NW
Pakistan (Kylanpaa 2000); Mysore, Karnataka (Thejaswi et
al. 2004). It is important to record all these observations for a
composite, overall picture of this migration and stop-overs
throughout the Indian subcontinent. Prey availability also
affects stop-over schedules. Therefore food and feeding
behaviour is also described.
Our aim in visiting Meghalaya was to observe the
migration of the Amur Falcon and Lesser Kestrel. The main
passage period of Amur Falcon in the Northeast is end
October when thousands pass through (Baker 1 928). In 2000,
the first author (RN) had observed only the Lesser Kestrel in
and around Balphakrarn National Park: December 26, 2000,
more than 10 birds at Durpeta between 1600-1700 hrs;
December 28, 2000 at 1640 hrs, 30 birds wheeling above a
harvested slope near Durpeta; December 29, 2000, more than
15 in the morning, 3 km from New Rompa Inspection
Bungalow. The same day, four individuals were seen on
Bagmara /Tura highway just before Hiringiri village at 1 300
hrs.
In 2001, we missed the peak passage spectacle in
October. Flowever, at 1 500 hrs on November 1 1, en route to
Tura from Guwahati on an overcast day with intermittent heavy
drizzle, we observed at least 1 5 Lesser Kestrel. At 1540 hrs,
just before the bifurcation to William Nagar ( 1 5 to 20 km before
Tura), we observed a large flock of Amur Falcons, estimated
between 400 and 800. The falcons milled around, flying in one
direction, milling and then streaming off in another direction,
throughout uttering high-pitched whistles ‘chichek' . As we
neared Tura at dusk around 1600 hrs, an extension of the
main flock was observed.
In the South Garo hills from New Rompa (Balphakrarn
National Park headquarters) to Mahesh Khola, from November
11-17, 2001, we occasionally saw a few individuals of the
Lesser Kestrel along the road at dusk, feeding on insects.
On November 16,2001 along the New Rompa /Rongra
road, community feeding was observed amongst Lesser
Kestrel, Amur Falcon and other bird species. At 1610 hrs about
50 Jungle Crows Corvus macrorhynchos were seen feeding
on a swarm of emerging winged termites, soon joined by
2 Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus, 1 Lesser Kestrel,
20+ Amur Falcons (including adult males), later joined by
3 Brahminy Kites Haliastur indus, 4-5 Ashy Wood Swallows
Artamus fuscus , 1 Common Hill Myna Gracula religiosa ,
3 Ashy Drongos Dicrurus leucophaeus, 7-8 Spangled
Drongos Dicrurus hottentottus, 4-5 Asian Palm Swifts
Cypsiurus balasiensis and Indian Roller Coracias
benghalensis. By 1620 hrs, the termites disappeared and the
feeding stopped. On November 17, 2001 at 1640 hrs at
Gasuapara (on the Balphakram/Tura highway), 2 Amur Falcons
were observed community feeding on winged termites.
Both species, especially the Amur Falcon, possibly
perform the most remarkable migration known in any bird of
prey: a total distance of approximately 10,000 to 1 1,000 km
(Brown and Amadon 1968; Ferguson-Lees and Christie 200 1 ).
Their long distance migration is from East Asia and in the
case of the Amur Falcon to the northern extremity of South
Africa, apparently crossing 3,000 km over the Indian Ocean,
returning via East Africa and across southern areas of the
Asian continent (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 200 1 ). Little is
known about this migration through the Indian subcontinent,
especially the sea crossing. More information is required on
the main passage period and fluctuations of dates depending
on weather. It would be interesting to monitor the migration
of these two species as and when a lightweight satellite
transmitter is developed, which should be no more than 4
percent of the falcon’s weight. Even rough estimates of
numbers and locations recorded throughout the Indian
subcontinent will, overtime, indicate the extent of the passage
and routes taken.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Mr. Balvinder Singh, PCCF, and C.
Thangliana, CCF, Meghalaya for all permissions. Ranger
Gopal Das and forest guards Englishton and James Marak
were extremely helpful. Dr. Asad Rahmani commented on the
first draft.
December 12, 2002 RISHAD NAOROJI
Godrej Bhavan, 4A Home Street,
Fort, Mumbai 400 00 1 ,
Maharashtra, India.
Email: rnaoroji@vsnl.com
HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA
B-27 Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar,
Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India.
Email: sangha@datainfosys.net
MAAN BARUA
Barua Bhavan, 107 M. C Road,
Uzan Bazar, Guwahati 78 1 00 1 ,
Assam, India.
104
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and
Sri Lanka, 2nd Edn. Vol 1. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Baker, E.C.S. (1928): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and
Burma. 2nd Edn. Vol. 5. Taylor & Francis, London.
Barua, M. & R Sharma (1999): Birds of Kaziranga National Park,
India. Forktail 15: 47-60.
Brown, L.H. & D. Amadon (1968): Eagles, Hawks & Falcons of the
World. Vol 1 & 2. Country Life Books, London.
Ferguson-Lees, J. & D.A. Christie (2001): Raptors of the World.
Christopher Helm Ltd, London.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1996): New bird records in Sri Lanka and some
connected matters. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 382-388.
Kylanpaa, J. (2000): Birds of Dera Ismail Khan District of North
West Frontier Province in Pakistan. Forktail 16: 15-28.
Naoroji, R.K. (1999): Status of Diurnal Raptors of Corbett National
Park with Notes on their Ecology and Conservation. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(3): 387-398.
Samant, J.S., V. Prakash & R.K. Naoroji (1995): Ecology and Behaviour
of resident raptors with special reference to endangered species,
Final Technical Report 1990-93. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.
Thejaswi, S., S. Sastry, A. Shivprakash &M. Mohan Kumar (2004):
Occurrence of Amur Falcon Falco amurensis Radde and Lesser
Kestrel Falco naumanni Fleischer in Mysore, Karnataka.
J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(3): 451-452.
Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The Birds ofWynaad, Southern
India. Forktail 8: 11-23.
10. THE DIET OF THE NICOBAR MEGAPODE MEGAPODIUS NICOBAR1ENSIS ,
IN GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
The Nicobar Megapode Megapodius nicobariensis , a
mound nesting bird, is endemic to Nicobar Islands.
Megapodes are a unique group of birds as they utilise external
sources of heat to incubate their eggs (Jones et al. 1995).
They forage by scratching and raking the debris on the ground
(Jones et al. 1995). Different types of food items have been
reported, including both plant and animal matter (Cleland 1912;
Booth 1986). Leaf-litter invertebrates and seeds are the major
food items of megapodes (Gill 1970; Brookes 1919), but in
captivity they consume mice, tadpoles and snails (Coles 1 937).
Stomach contents of a Nicobar Megapode specimen from
Tillanchong contained a beetle Scarabus plicatus and a snail
Helicina zelebori (Ali and Ripley 1983). Detailed information
on the diet of the mound building Nicobar Megapode has not
been published so far. Hence, the diet of a population of the
Nicobar Megapode Megapodius nicobariensis at the Great
Nicobar Island was studied.
This study was carried out from December 1 995 to May
1 998 at the southern tip of the Great Nicobar I. (6° 76' to 6° 79'
N, 93° 8 1 ' to 93° 84' E). The study area was a narrow strip of
forest, between 40 and 300 m wide, bound by the beach to the
east and by wetlands or forests to the west. The foraging
megapodes were intensively observed from hides constructed
at four different places, following focal animal sampling
(Altmann 1974). Apart from this, the diet of the Nicobar
Megapode was analysed from gut samples of three dead
specimens that were acquired from tribals. The gut contents
were identified and then grouped. The stomach contents of
two dead chicks were also examined.
A plastic tube of 4 mm diameter, attached to a 500 ml
plastic bottle filled with saline, was moistened with saline
solution for lubrication and inserted into the mouth of the
bird. The bird was then inverted over a plastic cup, so that as
the fluid was forced into its stomach, the excess fluid plus the
stomach contents flowed into the cup (Hess 1997). Five
megapode stomachs were flushed by this method. After the
flushing, the birds were seen resuming their activities without
any abnormal behaviour, showing that this method was not
stressful to the birds. The preference rank of each food item
consumed by the Nicobar Megapode was arrived at by both
the Volumetric and Occurrence Method (Kennedy and
Fitzmaurize 1972).
The Nicobar Megapode was observed eating soil
invertebrates, flying insects and vegetable matter. The
stomach contents reveal that the primary food items of the
Nicobar Megapode were cockroaches, beetles, ants, lizards,
snails, grasshoppers, hermit crabs, seeds of Macaranga
peitata and rotten vegetable matter. One bird was observed
chasing an agamid lizard on the ground. Megapodes have
also been observed feeding on the tissue of dead red crabs.
Seeds of Macaranga peitata dominated among the
stomach contents of this species (Table 1 ). Cockroaches and
snails were the major animal food items. Some beetles in the
megapode diet were Anomala andamanica, A. rhodomela ,
A. varicolor, Alissonotum piceum, Parastasia luteola ,
Heteronechus lioderes , Rhyssemtts germ anus. Aphodius
moestus , Hoiotrichia nicobarica, Apogonia nicobarica , and
Dasyvalgus insularis. These megapodes were also seen
consuming centipedes, lepidopterans, termites and tadpoles.
Like many other birds, they ingested grit in order to help
break down their food. They were occasionally observed
drinking rainwater. Of the stomachs of the two dead chicks
that were analyzed, one chick, which was partially eaten by a
hermit crab, contained only the seeds of Macaranga peitata
in its stomach. Another chick that was most likely attacked
by a raptor, contained nothing in its stomach.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
105
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1: The diet and its preference by the Nicobar
Megapode
Food item
Rank based on
Volumetric
proportion
Rank based on
frequency
of occurrence
Macaranga peltata
1
1
Dictyoptera (cockroaches) 2
2
Snails
2
3
Litters
3
2
Beetles
4
4
Ants
4
4
Unidentified
4
3
Grasshopper
4
5
Pauropodans
5
5
Hermit crab
5
5
Reptile scale
6
6
Like other megapodes, the Nicobar Megapode also
forages by scratching and raking the debris on the ground.
More precipitation reduced the foraging activities of the
Nicobar Megapode (Spearman correlation test: r = -0.46,
p= 0.05). Foraging patterns varied significantly between the
years (Kruskal Wallis test: H= 9.23, df= 2, p<0.01), due to
significant variation in precipitation (Kruskal Wallis test,
H= 7.8 1 , df= 2, p= 0.02). The data reported here agreed with
other reports for the genus Megapodius: that they are
omnivorous (Jones etal. 1995).
This study is funded by the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India and the logistic support by
the Forest Department, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, has
been invaluable in the execution of this study. We thank
V.S. Vijayan, Lalitha Vijayan, Rene Dekker, Daryl Jones, Yash
Veer Bhatnagar, Jugulu Mehto and Prem Ram for their valuable
inputs in this study.
December 12, 2002 K. SIVAKUMAR1
R. SANKARAN
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology
and Natural History,
Anaikatty, Coimbatore 640 108,
Tamil Nadu, India
'Present Address: Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box. 18,Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 00 1 , Uttaranchal, India.
E-mail: ksivakumar@wii.gov.in
REFERENCES
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
737 pp.
Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour: sampling
methods. Behaviour 48: 227-265.
Booth, D. T. (1986): Crop and gizzard contents of two Mallee fowl.
Emu 86: 51-53.
Brookes, G.B. (1919): Report on investigations in regard to the spread
of prickly pear by the Scrub Turkey. Queensland Agricultural
Journal II: 26-28.
Cleland, J.B. (1912): Examination of contents of stomachs and crops
of Australian birds. Emu 12: 8-18.
Coles, C. ( 1 937): Some observations on the habits of the Brush Turkey
(Alectura lathami). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London
107(A): 261-73.
Gill, H.B. (1970): Birds of Innisfail and hinterland. Emu 70: 105-1 16.
Hess, H.C. (1997): Stomach flushing: sampling the dietofRed-cockaded
Woodpecker. Wilson. Bull. 109(3): 535-539.
Jones, D.N., R.W.R.J. Dekker & C.S. Roselaar( 1995): The Megapodes.
Oxford University Press. 262 pp.
Kennedy, M & P. Fitzmaurize (1972): Some aspects of the biology of
gudgeon Gobio gobio (L.) in Irish waters. J. Fish. Biol 4: 425-440.
11. GRIT USE IN THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE
Introduction
Grit is generally ingested by granivorous and
herbivorous birds, and to a smaller extent by insectivorous
birds (Weltry and Baptista 1988). The main purpose of grit
intake by birds is to facilitate the mechanical grinding in the
gizzard of any hard, coarse material ingested by the bird.
However, grit may also provide calcium to female birds just
before the breeding period (Harper 1964). Grit use patterns
are fairly well understood for Galliformes (Dalke 1 937; Sadler
1961) and for ‘cornfield birds’ (Best and Gionfriddo 1991;
Gionfriddo and Best 1996). While several observations have
been made towards ingestion of grit particles by Sarus Cranes
(J. Langenberg pers. comm., M. Nagendran pers. comm..
K.S.Gopi Sundar pers. obs.), no information exists on
the amount and kind of grit ingested by Sarus Cranes. In
this paper, we present information on grit use by the Sarus
Crane in India based on contents of three Sarus Crane
gizzards.
METHODS
The gizzards of three Sarus Cranes (one each of a sub-
adult, male and female bird), which had been collected after
their death due to suspected pesticide poisoning (S. Sharma,
pers. comm.), were obtained from Keoladeo Ghana National
Park in Bharatpur, India. The age of these birds were unknown
106
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
and could only be inferred from the development of the red
colouration on the head (Ali and Ripley 1980). The gizzards
were found to contain large amounts of vegetable matter and
grit. The gizzards were sliced open, all the contents were
flushed onto petri dishes, and the grit separated, washed and
dried.
Characterization of grit was done following Best and
Gionff iddo (1991). Three measurements used to characterize
the grit were: 1 ) Size - the average of the longest and the
shortest dimensions of each particle was calculated by
measuring the two dimensions with Vernier callipers to the
nearest 0.01 mm. 2) Shape - grit shape index was calculated by
dividing the longest dimension with the shortest. The particles
representing a spherical shape would have an index of 1 .0
and grit with values greater than unity were deemed oval to
oblong, and 3) Roundness - grit roundness was measured by
classifying all particles in five categories, namely Angular,
Sub-angular, Sub-rounded, Rounded and Well-rounded.
Roundness index was calculated by giving grit particles a
value of 1 for Angular, 2 for Sub-angular and so on; values
tending towards five would mean grit with completely smooth
surfaces.
Grit particles with the longest dimension <1 mm were
excluded from the analysis, assuming that they were
accidentally ingested by the cranes, or were broken down
from larger particles. Very few particles (<1%) were excluded
from the total sample for this reason. All grit particles of each
bird were weighed together to the nearest 0.0 1 gm.
a
Size classes (mm)
b
RESULTS
Shape index classes
A total of 523 grit particles were counted and measured
from the gizzards of the three Sarus Cranes. The total weight,
number of grit particles, mean grit size and mean grit shape
are indicated in Table 1 . Though the male bird had the highest
mean grit size, the two largest grit particles (> 10 mm) were
found in the other two birds. The largest range of grit sizes
was seen in the sub-adult and female bird (Fig. la). Most grit
particles (80.7%) in all three gizzards were between 2-6 mm in
size (Fig. lb). While the sub-adult and the female bird had
most grit particles in the size range of 2-4 mm, the male bird
had most grit particles in the 4-6 mm range (Fig. la). Most of
the particles (69%) had a shape index of 1 .5-2.5 (Fig. 1 b). The
male bird had the largest variety of shapes (9 classes) and the
female, the least (6 classes). All three birds used most of the
grit particles in the shape index range of 1 .5-2 (Fig. lb). The
most represented grit roundness categories were Sub-angular
and Sub-rounded (77.6% of all particles, Fig. lc). The least
represented roundness category was Well-rounded (n=l) in
the entire sample. The largest proportion of Angular particles
c
Roundness categories
Fig. 1 : a. Percent composition of grit particles across different size
classes;
b. Percent composition of grit particles across different
shape index classes;
c. Percent composition of grit particles across different
roundness categories
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
107
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1: Characteristics of grit in Sarus Cranes
Gizzards
sampled
Number of
grit
particles
Total
weight
(gm)
Mean
size
(mm)
Shape Mean
index Roundness
Sub-adult
108
13.46
3.92
2.01
2 45
(1.1-10.41)
(1.18-4.55)
Adult male
220
35.95
4.5
2.2
2.94
(1.28-8 57)
(1.11-5.62)
Adult female 195
22.65
3.68
1.94
2.74
(1.03-11.8)
(1.17-3.89)
Range of mean size and shape index of grit is given in parentheses
was seen in the sub-adult bird. All three birds used most of
the grit particles in the Sub-rounded category (Fig. lc). Mean
roundness of grit particles was almost the same in all three
birds (Table 1).
DISCUSSION
While use of grit in birds is known to differ with body
size, gender, reproductive status and availability, diet is
known to be the most important factor influencing use of grit
(Gionfriddo and Best 1996). Increase in number of grit
particles is usually in bird species with a diet of hard, coarse
material, particularly seeds and vegetable matter (Gionfriddo
and Best 1996), and in species with a varied, unspecialized
diet. The Sarus Crane ( Grits antigone ) in India is known to
be omnivorous, its diet including grain of several kind, plant
shoots, tubers of aquatic plants, frogs, lizards and other
reptiles, grasshoppers and other insects, vegetable matter,
fruits, molluscs (Hume and Marshall 1879, Baker 1929,
Ghorpade 1975), fish (Law 1930) and occasionally eggs of
other birds (Sundar 2000). The omnivorous habit of the
species most likely facilitates the intake of such large
quantities of grit. Many of the foods reported for the Sarus
are calcium-rich, and it is unlikely that grit is ingested to
supplement calcium, but primarily fulfils a mechanical
function.
Sarus Crane males are larger than females, and sub-
adults are considerably smaller than adult birds (Ali and Ripley
1 980). This may explain the difference in the higher number of
grit particles and the corresponding weight of the gizzard of
the male bird, and the smaller values for the other two birds
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Vol 2: Megapodes to Crab Plover. Oxford University
Press, Delhi.
Baker, E.C.S. (1929): The game birds of the Indian Empire Vol. V. The
(Table 1 ). Most of the grit particles used by the male bird were
also of a higher size class compared to those in the other two
birds (4-6 mm as against 2-4 mm). Larger sample sizes will be
required to adequately explore gender and age related
differences in grit use patterns in Sarus Cranes.
From this study, it appears that Sarus Cranes generally
use grit particles between 2-6 mm in size and opt for grit
particles with intermediate degrees of roughness and
roundness. In theory, angular particles with sharp edges have
the greatest efficiency in digesting coarse food substances,
but also pose the risk of damaging internal digestive organs.
In contrast, well-rounded particles have the lowest risk with
respect to physical injury, but will be least efficient in breaking
down food. In this respect, Sarus Cranes seem to be using
grit particles to maximize digestion while avoiding excessive
physical damage to digestive organs. This data set is useful
in that it provides information to aviculturists and zoo
managers on the kind of grit that should be provided to captive
Sarus Cranes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Mrs. Shruti Sharma, Director, Keoladeo Ghana
National Park for providing the Sarus samples for the study.
A. Tamim helped with the transport of the samples and S.P.
Rajkumar assisted in the autopsy, storage of gizzards, and in
sexing the birds. We thank the Director, Wildlife Institute of
India for facilities and infrastructure provided under the Sarus
Crane Project. M.S. Rana (Wildlife Institute of India), and B.
Didrickson (International Crane Foundation) provided library
support. KSGS thanks J. Langenberg, D. Mudappa, M.
Nagendran, T.R.S. Raman and M. Spalding for discussions
and comments on a previous draft.
December 30, 2002 K.S.GOPI SUNDAR1
B.C. CHOUDHURY
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box 1 8, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.
'Present Address: C/o Wildlife Society of India,
M-52, Greater Kailash Part- 1 ,
New Delhi 1 1 0 048, India
Email: gopi@savingcranes.org
waders and other semi-sporting birds. Part VII. J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 33: 4.
Best, L.B. & J.P. Gionfriddo (1991): Characterization of grit use by
cornfield birds. Wilson Bull. 795:68-82.
108
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Dalke, P.L. (1937): Food habits of adult pheasants in Michigan based
on crop analysis method. Ecology 18: 199-213.
Ghorpade, A.M. ( 1 975): Notes on the feeding of the Sarus Crane Grus
antigone antigone (Linnaeus). J Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 72:
199-200.
Gionfriddo, J.P. & L.B. Best (1996): Grit-use patterns in North
American birds: the influence of diet, body size, and gender.
Wilson Bull. 108: 685-696.
Hume, A.O. & C.H.T. Marshall (1879): The Game Birds of India,
Burma & Ceylon. Vol III. John Bale, London. Pp. 4-5.
Harper, J.A. (1964): Calcium in grit consumed by hen pheasants in
east-central Illinois. J. Wild/. Manage. 28: 264-270.
Law, S.C. (1930): Fish eating habit of the Sarus Crane (Antigone
antigone). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 582-583.
Sadler, K. (1961): Grit selectivity by the female pheasant during egg
production. J Wildl. Manage. 25: 339-341.
Sundar, K.S.G (2000): Eggs in the diet of the Sarus Crane ( Grits
antigone). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 97: 428-429.
Weltry, J.C.& L. Baptista (1988): The LifeofBirds. Saunders College
Publishers, N.Y.
12. OBSERVATIONS OF MATE CHANGE AND OTHER ASPECTS OF PAIR-BOND IN
THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE
Sarus Cranes Grus antigone are known to be
monogamous and pair bond is thought to last throughout the
lives of the birds (Ali and Ripley 1 989). The male and female of
a pair are known to strengthen the pair bond by synchronized
behaviours such as duet calls, dance, guard-calls and alarm-
calls (Masatomi 1994; Archibald 1976). The actual duration of
pair bond, prevalence of mate change and factors leading to
such changes are unknown in Sarus Cranes. In this note, I
report the first evidence of divorce or separation in Sarus
Cranes with observations on other aspects of pair bond and
territoriality.
Over two hundred and fifty breeding, territorial pairs of
Sarus Cranes were monitored between December 1999-July
2002 as part of a study on their biology and conservation in
the districts of Etawah and Mainpuri in Uttar Pradesh. The
study area has the highest known density of territorial pairs
and number of Sarus Cranes anywhere in the world. Pairs/
families were recognized by colour-banding the juveniles each
year, with individual physical marks on adult birds, or by
location. Pairs, particularly those with young, were observed
one to seven times a week (average of four observations) to
collect data on breeding success, feeding habits, territory
size, and activity budgets. Mate change was observed in two
instances and is discussed in this note. “Divorce” or change
of pair membership was actually observed in one pair, while
mate change could be deduced in another. In addition, other
relevant aspects of pair bonding, territoriality, and related
behaviours observed are described and discussed. The
behaviour terminology used throughout the text follows
Ellis etal. (1998).
Mate change observation 1
The territory of one pair was very close to the town of
Etawah, and consisted of a large Typha- bordered marshland
and crop fields. The pair had successfully raised one chick
during the breeding season in 1999-2000, and was seen to
defend the territory from other Sarus pairs and groups
throughout the observation period. In early August, the adult
birds were observed to chase the sub-adult from the territory,
and the frequency of duet calls (which is also used for
advertisement during territorial defence, Archibald 1976)
increased. In mid-August, the pair constructed a nest of Typha
reeds in the marshland and the female laid two eggs, both of
which were removed by villagers.
On September 8, 2000, during a routine visit to the area,
another bird was seen in the territory and repeated attempts
by the resident pair to chase the visitor (duet calls, tertial-
elevation struts and co-ordinated guard calls) failed to elicit a
response. In a surprising move, the visitor attacked the
resident female (identified by smaller size and posture during
duet calls). At first, the male assumed threat postures and
carried out displacement preens, tertial-elevation struts, and
a directed walk threat at the visitor. These attempts failed to
displace the visitor, which instead renewed attacks on the
resident female. The visitor was smaller than the resident male,
but larger than the resident female. The resident female and
the visitor sparred for almost five minutes, pecking each other
and indulging in rapid, violent bouts of jump-rakes. The
resident female was clearly losing the battle; the larger size of
the visitor could have proved to be an advantage. At this
point, the resident male, which was otherwise circling the
fighting pair of cranes, walked in and pecked the resident
female. The resident female began running away from the
visitor, giving alarm-calls, and the male responded by calling
synchronously, but did not come to the rescue. The visitor
became very aggressive and mounted a fresh attack on the
resident female by kicking, jump-raking, wing-thrashing,
sitting on the back of the bird and pecking the neck and head
hard and rapidly, finally chasing the bird into a pond and
forcing it to swim to the opposite bank. The male was now
chasing the resident female as well, and clearly supporting
the visitor, though he synchronously answered the alarm and
guard-calls of the resident female.
On emerging from the lake, the resident female was
pursued once again by the visitor. This time, the female
deliberately, but cautiously, approached human observers
standing on the side of the marshland and stood as close as
5 m. This dissuaded the visitor from attacking further and she
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
109
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
resorted instead to a watchful preening session from beside
the male bird. The resident female, while drying her wings,
gave continuous calls, all of which were answered by the
male. Several times, the resident female made a move towards
the male, which caused the visitor to stop preening and walk
towards her. Each time, the resident female would walk back
towards the humans, causing the visitor to back off. After
nearly an hour, the resident male and the visitor managed to
chase the resident female away. The whole incident took place
over a period of 55 minutes (1655-1750 hrs).
The male, with the visitor, commenced construction of
a nest an hour later. The nest site was shifted the next morning
due to human disturbance, and both birds worked vigorously
at the construction. No eggs were laid and the nest was found
abandoned a week later. The new pair was not observed
duetting until the end of October, when they were also
observed contact calling in synchrony for the first time, and
were first observed dancing only in August 2001. Though
the nesting season for Sarus Cranes in the study area is July-
October (pers. obs.), the pair constructed a nest in April 200 1 ,
but no eggs were laid. The pair constructed a nest again in
September 2001, but disturbance by people and cattle
dissuaded them from laying eggs.
The reason for re-pairing by the male was not entirely
apparent, though the larger size and more aggressive nature
of the visitor female may have caused the male to choose
over the previous, smaller one. The incident fits into the
“forced divorce hypothesis” wherein a third dominant
individual is responsible for break-up; previous reproductive
success cannot predict the divorce and the break-up does
not necessarily improve reproductive fitness of the divorced
members (Choudhury 1995). This is also the only recorded
instance of “courtship-role reversal” in Sarus Cranes with
females being sexually competitive and displaying aggression
to choose a male. Recent reviews have shown that this
phenomenon arises when parental investment is greater by
males (Gwynne 1991). This aspect of Sarus Crane biology
has not been explored and promises to be an exciting subject
for study. Young cranes are sometimes thought to build nest
platforms immediately after establishing a breeding territory
(Archibald 2000). The building of a nest in the above pair of
cranes uncharacteristically in April 2000 may be part of the
behaviour seen in newly paired young cranes.
Mate change observation 2
In another case, mate change could be deduced from a
physical abnormality in the female bird - the mid-toe of the
right leg of the female was missing. In 1999, the pair had
successfully hatched two chicks, both of which were colour
banded in December 1 999 and observed to disperse from their
natal territory in June 2000. The pair was observed to nest in
August 2000, but children removed both eggs and the pair
did not renest. In November 2000, observations of the birds
after the harvesting of paddy in the territory showed that the
female was different, as evidenced by the presence of all toes
on the feet. The male was presumed to be the same, since the
territory being defended by the pair was exactly the same as
that determined using colour-banded chicks the previous
breeding season. The new pair nested in August 2001,
villagers removed the eggs from the nest, and the pair renested
1 8 days later. The one egg from renesting hatched, but the
chick disappeared within a week due to unknown
circumstances. The pair did not renest following the death of
the chick. The change of the female occurred between August
and November 2000. In this pair, as in the previous case, mate
change resulted in a decrease in immediate productivity and
the male retained the territory. The pair was observed calling
in unison in November 2000 and dancing a month later. The
pair bonding after re-pairing, thus, was faster in this pair.
On mate change in cranes
Mate loss and divorce have been documented in Sandhill
Cranes Gras canadensis. New pairs have been established in
birds following separation or death of a partner (Nesbitt and
Wenner 1987), and divorce has been observed in as many as
67% of 24 colour-banded pairs observed for 3-1 1 years (Nesbitt
1989). Though successful reproduction was seen to enhance
the maintenance of a new pair bond, unsuccessful breeding
was not necessarily always the cause for divorce (Nesbitt 1 989).
Also, as observed in the Sarus Cranes, territory was retained by
males of separating pairs eight out of nine times (Nesbitt 1 989).
In another study on Florida Sandhill Cranes G.c. tabida, Nesbitt
and Tacha ( 1 997) recorded breaking of 44% of pair bonds; 32.3%
of these were due to divorce. In this study, incidence of divorce
was found to be related to failure to reproduce (Nesbitt and
Tacha 1997). Territory was retained by males 92.9% of times,
and females 69.2% of the time. In Eurasian Cranes G. grits, a
hand-reared bird was recorded to change mates three times in
seven years (Johnsgard 1983). Mate changing is known in
almost all crane species in captivity, and data from captive birds
suggests that mate changing is most common in the early years
and stabilizes after birds find compatible partners (Swengel et
al. 1996). In Sandhi 11 Cranes, re-pairing of females that retained
their territories was usually with younger males, while males re-
paired with females of the same age as themselves, or older
(Nesbitt 1989).
Mate changes in the Sarus in Etawah, however, occurred
after cranes had bonded and even bred successfully. In the
two breeding seasons after mate changing, the change of
partner was observed to result in a decrease in productivity
110
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
of the pair in both cases. It is possible that productivity may
be enhanced in the long run. Large-scale colour-banding of
paired adults using individually colour-coded plastic bands
and/or recording of duet-calls, which are known to be
‘signatures’ for a given pair (Wessling 2000), should be used
to investigate mate changes in Sarus Cranes. Information on
these aspects of behaviour of Sarus Cranes is entirely absent.
These observations over two and a half years, of a very large
number of breeding, territorial pairs, clearly indicate that not
all Sarus pairs bond for life as is made out to be for the species.
On pair bonding and territoriality
A few other aspects of pair bonding and territoriality
were observed during the study period. The first involves
injury to the male just prior to the breeding season. In three
pairs, the male was injured due to collision with electric wires,
rendering one leg useless, preventing mating for the season.
In one of these pairs, the nesting area, a perennial pond, was
usurped by an adjoining pair, which did not have any natural
wetlands in their territory. The nesting area was regained by
the original owners after the leg of the injured male healed the
following year. In the other two pairs, the adjoining pairs had
sufficient area to nest in and did not perhaps need to usurp
the territory of the pairs with the injured male. All three pairs
had successfully weaned young the previous season, and
observations of unison calls and absence of egg laying by
females of all three pairs indicated that the female did not
desert the males, and did not mate with other males.
In another instance, the male was alone for two years
(gender recognized by posture during calls given while
defending territory). Both years, the adjoining pairs could
not appropriate any part of the territory. In February 2002, a
female joined the male. In one other pair, the male’s wing was
injured badly, but the pair could successfully defend their
territory from other pairs. The pair, however, did not breed in
the three breeding seasons during which they were observed.
The second aspect involves death of the male: in only
one pair the male was killed by electrocution after flying into
live electric wires. The female, with her two fledged young, was
ousted from the territory, most of which was appropriated by
two pairs with territories adjacent to the territory of the female.
These observations suggest that it may not be possible
for a female to defend territory alone. However, females with
injured males seem to be able to successfully defend territories,
as also single males. This is consistent with observations on
Sandhill Cranes (Nesbitt 1 989). The pattern also fits in with a
male-dominated resource defence system (Greenwood 1 980)
where the male has a higher investment in securing and
maintaining the resource (in this case, territory), and the
female’s mate choice is imposed upon the mating system of
the species. It is, however, not necessary that similar trends
hold good in other areas with Sarus Cranes that have a low
number of non-breeding individuals.
On aggression and cognition
Although pecking and jump-rakes have been observed
to be part of the agonistic behavioural repertoire in every
species of crane, the fights in Sarus Cranes usually do not
escalate beyond jump-rakes (pers. obs.), and the risk of
physical damage is minimised. The birds, instead, resort to
lower levels of non-physical aggression that include a wide
range of postures and calls (described in Ellis et al. 1998).
Observations in Etawah show that Sarus Cranes are capable
of terrific violence against conspecifics.
An interesting feature of the incident where divorce
was observed was that of the resident female seeking
protection from the attacking visitor by walking up very close
to humans. That the bird did it repeatedly suggested an
understanding on its part that the visitor would not risk close
approach to humans. Though farmers often remove eggs from
nests to dissuade pairs from breeding in their fields, they
rarely persecute adult birds. The observation suggests higher
cognitive abilities in Sarus Cranes than was previously known.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The observations were made during fieldwork in the
Sarus Crane project of the Wildlife Institute of India. I thank
the Director and B.C. Choudhury for facilities and
infrastructure. Work permits were kindly granted by Chief
Wildlife Warden, Uttar Pradesh. Library support was provided
by B. Didrickson and M.S. Rana, and I gratefully acknowledge
the same. D. Singh and A. Verma provided field assistance,
and R. Chauhan and family kindly provided accommodation
and facilities at Etawah. B.C. Choudhury, D. Mudappa, T.R.S.
Raman, and A. Sinha provided comments on previous drafts
of the note and I thank them for the same. I am especially
indebted to S. Nesbitt who kindly provided many pertinent
references and critical comments on a previous draft.
February 24, 2003 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR
Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.
Present address: c/o International Crane Foundation
E-l 1376-^Shady Lane Road,
PO. 447, WI - 53913-0447, USA.
c/o Wildlife Protection Society of India
M-52, Greater Kailash Part 1 ,
New Delhi 1 10 048, India.
Email: gopi@savingcranes.org
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
111
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1989): A Handbook of Birds of India and
Pakistan. Volume 2. Megapodes to Crab Plovers. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Archibald, G.W. (1976): The unison call of cranes as a useful
taxonomic tool. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York.
Archibald, G.W. (2000): Michigan’s whooping cranes. ICF Bugle
26(4): 3.
Choudhury, S. (1995): Divorce in birds: a review of the hypotheses.
Anim. Behav. 50: 413-429.
Ellis, D.H., S.R. Swengel, G.W. Archibald & C.B. Kepler (1998): A
sociogram for cranes of the world. Beh. Proc. 43: 125-151.
Greenwood, P.J. (1980): Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in
birds and mammals. Anim. Beh. 28: 1 140-1 162.
Gwynne, D.T. (1991): Sexual competition among females: what causes
courtship-role reversal? TREE 6: 118-121
Johnsgard, P.A. (1983): Cranes of the World. Croom Helm, London
& Canberra.
Masatomi, H. (1994): Structure and function of crane dance. Pp. 1 46-
MS . In: The Future of Cranes and Wetlands (Eds: Higuchi, H. &
J. Minton). Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium
(ed. ), Wild Bird Society of Japan, Tokyo, Japan.
Nesbitt, S.A. (1989): The significance of mate loss in Florida sandhill
cranes. Wilson Bull. 101: 648-651.
Nesbitt, S. & T.C. Tacha (1997): Monogamy and productivity in
Sandhill cranes. Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop 7: 10-13.
Nesbitt, S. A. & A.S. Wenner (1987): Pair formation and mate fidelity
in sandhill cranes. Pp. 117-122. In: Lewis, J.C. (ed.) Proceedings
of the 1985 Crane Workshop, Platte River Whooping Crane
Maintenance Trust, Grand Island, NE, USA.
Swengel, S.R., G.W. Archibald, D.H. Ellis & D.G Smith (1996):
Behaviour management. Pp. 31-43. In: Cranes: their biology,
husbandry and management (Eds: Ellis, D.H., GF. Gee & C.M.
Mirande). Hancock House, Blaine, Washington.
Wessling, B. (2000): Crane voiceprints. The ICF Bugle 26 (Aug):
1-2.
13. DISTRIBUTION OF MASKED FINFOOT HELIOPAIS PERSONATA
IN THE SUNDARBANS RESERVED FOREST OF BANGLADESH
Introduction
The Sundarbans Reserved Forest (SRF) of Bangladesh,
the home of the Bengal Tiger, is a unique habitat for wildlife,
especially for avian biodiversity. It is the world’s largest
contiguous block of mangrove forest, with an area of c. 6,017
sq. km, managed by the Forest Department since 1884
(Cannonizado and Hossain 1998). Of the total area, 4, 1 43 sq. km
is landniass, while 1 ,874 sq. km is water bodies. The Sundarbans
mangrove forest is situated in south-western Bangladesh,
between 2 1° 39' 00"-22° 30' 1 5" N and 89° 2' 00"-89° 54' 07" E.
There are 32 species of mammals, 8 species of amphibians,
14 species of turtles, 30 species of snakes, 35 species of other
reptiles, 186 species of birds (Hossain and Acharya 1994),
1 96 species of fishes (Bemacsek 2000) and 334 species of plants
(Prain 1 903) recorded. T he Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata
(GR. Gray 1 849 ( 1 848)) is the only species of the Order Gruiformes
found in the Sub-Himalayan region, in northeast India and in
the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. This bird is also distributed in
Myanmar, Malaysia and Thailand (Khan 2000). Grimmett et al.
(1998) reported that the Masked Finfoot is a rare resident or
visitor in Bangladesh. The Masked Finfoot found in Bangladesh
Sundarbans is a resident. Not much literature is available on the
biology of the Masked Finfoot in this region. Khan (2000)
reported that it is endangered in Bangladesh and globally
vulnerable.
The Masked Finfoot is a duck-like bird sparsely
distributed over a large forest area of the Bangladesh
Sundarbans. It is locally known as Hans Pakhi. Khan (2000)
reported the Bangla name Goilo Hansh. This bird is usually
found in tidal channels of dense swampy mangrove forest,
which are relatively undisturbed. It was seen most of the time in
pairs, standing at the shores of the small rivers and channels.
These channels and small rivers are locally known as khals.
Sometimes the birds were found sitting on the trunk of baen
trees ( Avicennia officinalis) inclined over the khals. The head,
neck and some part of the back is visible while swimming. The
Masked Finfoot is very shy, solitary, and sometimes tries to
hide in the grass if approached by people or boats. Khan
(2000) reported its breeding from July-August and nests at a
height of 1-3 m on horizontal branches of trees, built with
twigs.
Distribution
A total of 24 Masked Finfoot were sighted in the SRF
from 1999 to 2001 . They were mostly seen in the freshwater
zone that is in the eastern part of river Shipsa of the
Sundarbans mangroves. The maximum sighting was recorded
while cruising in the Tambulbunia khal. Eight individuals were
sighted in four different locations. This khal appeared to be
relatively undisturbed. The maximum western limit of sighting
of the Masked Finfoot is the Sarbatkhali khal of Khulna Range
of the Sundarbans West Forest Division, which is also located
in the freshwater zone, east of the river Shipsa. This bird is
normally seen in the Katka and Kachikhali khal of the
Sundarbans East Sanctuary and near the western entry point
of the Mara Bhola khal , which is located in the moderately
saltwater zone. Besides these sites, the Masked Finfoot was
seen in the Bara Morogmari khal and Jongra khal of the
Sundarbans East Forest Division. None were ever sighted in
the saltwater zone (Fig. 1), though the area was extensively
searched and inquiries made. This bird was sighted over an
area of 2000 sq. km. Each site was far from the others, so the
112
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
89*10
89*20
89*30'
89*40'
89*S0'
89*10' 89*20' 89*30' 89"40' 89’SO'
Fig. 1 : Map showing sighting spot of Masked Finfoot in Sundarban Reserved Forest
(Scale = 1: 500,000) Planning, Monitoring & Research Unit
Sundarban Biodiversity Conservation Project,
Bangladesh Forest Department, Boyra, Khulna
chance of overlapping is almost nil. They were never sighted
flying above the forest canopy (about 8- 1 0 m) of Sundarbans,
and their call was never heard during sightings. When trying
to hide, they walk or swim away swiftly and fly low over short
distances.
Information on breeding, nesting and poaching in
Bangladesh Sundarbans should be collected. As the birds
disappear from the area during harvesting of forest produce,
there should be more undisturbed areas reserved for Masked
Finfoot to increase their population. Certain forest areas of
Sharonkhola and Chandpai Range of Sundarbans East Forest
Division may be preserved thus.
February 24, 2003 MOHAMMAD OSMAN GAN I
Bangladesh Forest Department,
Bana Bhavan, Dhaka 1212,
Bangladesh.
Email: bforest@citechco.net
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
113
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Bernacsek, Garry (2000): Fisheries of the Sundarbans. Interim Technical
Report No. I Vol. 7. Main Report. Sundarbans Biodiversity
Conservation Project. Khulna. Bangladesh. Pp. 23-26.
Cannonizado, C.J. & Md. Akbar Hossain (1998): Integrated Forest
Management Plan for the Sundarbans Reserved Forest. Vol. I.
Mandala Agricultural Development Corporation and Forest
Department, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Dhaka,
Bangladesh. Pp. 1-1.
Grjmmett Richard, Carol Inskipp & Tim Inskipp (1998): Birds of the
Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, India Pp. 46 1 -
462.
1 Iossain, Z. & G. Acharya ( 1 994): Mangroves of Sundarbans - Volume
II: Bangladesh. IUCN- The World Conservation Union. Pp. 257.
Khan, Anisuzzaman M. (2000): Red Book of Threatened Birds of
Bangladesh. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Bangladesh.
Dhaka. Pp. 39.
Prain, O. (1903): The Flora of Sundarbans. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 144 :
231-272.
14. TERRITORIAL FIGHTING BEHAVIOUR OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS
Territorial fight in the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis
nigriceps occurs frequently among adult males during the
breeding season (Rahmani 1989). Territorial Fights between
cocks were seen on seven occasions in Vingaber, Kachchh,
Gujarat in the presence of females.
During territorial fights, males were in display and no
change in posture between display and fighting was obvious
on all the occasions except for the erecting of crown feathers.
Rahmani ( 1 989) also reported that the fighting posture is similar
to the display posture. As soon as the intruder was seen, the
owner approached it, either with a short (light (if the intruder
was slightly away), or with a rapid walk. After this approach,
both the males started marching parallel to each other with
their tails half or fully cocked for about 5 to 25 m (Fig. 1 ), then
Figs 1-6: Sequence ofterritorial fighting behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard
114
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
stopped and start shaking the gular pouches laterally (3-5
times) (Fig. 2). Immediately after, both made a 360° rotation,
walked to the place where they started, and repeated the same
sequence for about 5 to 7 minutes. Later, both the birds faced
each other, jumped at the same instant from the ground and
dashed their breasts (Fig. 3), and legs against each other (Fig.
4), as reported by Rahmani (1989). Once they landed, both
held each other by locking their necks (Fig. 5). This was
followed by pecking (Fig. 6) by the owner of the territory or
the winner. After nearly three minutes of sparring, the loser
released himself from the winner and llew to his territory or
another spot. The different postures (Figs 1-6) (Art by VG)
show the sequence in territorial fighting behaviour.
Interestingly enough, probably the same males (not
certain, since the birds were not colour- or radio-tagged) on
three occasions shared the same place without territorial
lighting when the females were not nearby. Both the cocks
ignored each other and foraged very close for about 10
minutes, after which the intruder flew to his own territory.
This could be a strategy to save energy in the absence of
females, as it would be disadvantageous for the bird to expend
energy fighting, which if stored would help while courting a
female. All this could be part of the species’ mating strategy.
Another rare observation made during the breeding
season in 2000 was of nine males displaying at the same time
within 500 to 1 000 m from each other in Vingaber. This could
be due to lack of proper display sites in other areas of the
grasslands, or because more females congregate at this
location (five females were sighted here compared to one and
rarely two in other places). No territorial fight was observed
at that time. In this case also, territorial fighting would be
disadvantageous to the males involved, compared to those
not involved, who would be able to spend more time and
energy in display to attract females.
February 24, 2003 JUSTUS JOSHUA1
V. GOKULA2
S. F. WESLEY SUNDERRAJ1
'Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology,
Post Box 83, Opp. Changleshwar Temple,
Mundra Road, Bhuj 370 001 , Kachchh,
Gujarat, India.
2Department ofZooIogy, National College,
Tiruchirapalli 620 00 1 ,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
REFERENCE
Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard. Final Report. Bombay Natural History Society. 234 pp.
15. SPOTTED DOVE STREPTOPELIA CHINENSIS FEEDING ON WINGED TERMITES
Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis (Gmelin) is well
known to be a granivore. It feeds on grains of paddy, jowar
and other cereals, lentils and pulses, grass and weed seeds
(compact handbook, Ali and Ripley, 1987). But there is no
record of it feeding on insects. We note here our recent
observation on Spotted Doves feeding on winged termites in
Sarkarpathy, Pollachi division of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary and National Park, Tamil Nadu.
On June 27, 2002 at 0820 hrs, while monitoring a scrub
jungle transect, the feeding behaviour of two Spotted Doves
attracted our attention. To our surprise, the doves were found
feeding on winged termites (dead and alive) on the roadside.
A similar observation was made again at 0925 hrs, in the same
habitat, but this time eight Spotted Doves were feeding
together on the termites. As we were observing this behaviour,
a Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum , a Grey
Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii and Sirkeer Malkoha
Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii also arrived and started
feeding on these termites very close to each other. While the
others are known insectivores, doves feeding on winged
termites is unusual and deserves mention, sighting of eight
individuals feeding together on the termites clearly indicates
that it is not an unusual feeding habit. Most likely, the Spotted
Doves in this area are used to feeding on such seasonal insects
or turn to insectivory during such seasons.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India and the Bombay Natural History
Society for support and facilities. The first author would like
to acknowledge Mr. Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri and Mr. B.
Senthilmurugan, Research Fellows, BNHS for their
suggestions.
December 30, 2002 N. S1VAKUMARAN
ASAD R. RAHMANI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra,
India.
Email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net. in
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
115
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
16. MALABAR TROGON HARPACTES FASCIATUS PENNANT
IN THE NILGIRIS UPPER PLATEAU, TAMIL NADU
On April 24, 2002 at the end of one of our bird community
transects at Thiashola in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, we heard
an unknown, low, mewing call from inside the shola (Montane
Wet Temperate forest). On following the call, we found a
male Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus perched in the
middle canopy of a tall tree in the shola. Soon we heard
another bird from about 40 m on the other side of the road.
The call was a cue-cue-cue uttered frequently at regular
intervals. Both the birds remained in the same
patch for around ten minutes, while frequently flying from
tree to tree. Later they flew away and could not be sighted
again.
The Malabar Trogon has been reported as uncommon
from the plains up to 1 ,500 m only (Ali and Ripley 1 987) and
hills up to 1 ,050 m (Ali 1 999). This is the first record of this
species from the Nilgiris Upper Plateau (one of the highest
hill components of Western Ghats) at 2,150 m. Thiashola
was revisited in May, June and July 2002, but no Malabar
Trogon could be heard or seen. We presume that the species
might be coming to the Upper Nilgiris only during the spring
months, and return to the lower elevations before the onset
of monsoon, when it becomes windy and cold.
In its range below 1 ,500 m it affects evergreen and moist
deciduous forest, however, in the Nilgiris it was recorded in
Montane Wet Temperate forests (shola). Thiashola forest is
located in the southwest of the Nilgiris Upper Plateau, where
the hill range abruptly falls to the low lying Coimbatore and
Palakad division. Presumably, some of these birds might be
coming higher up during summer, from the neighbouring Silent
Valley forest, Neelambur Forest Division or Palghat section.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This observation was made during the fieldwork of our
research project ‘Ecology of Shola Grasslands’. We thank the
US Fish and Wildlife Service for funding and the Tamil Nadu
Forest Department for permission.
December 1 2, 2002 ASHFAQ AHMED ZARR1
ASAD R. RAHMAN!
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net. in
REFERENCES
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987). Compact Handbook of Birds oflndia and Ali, S. (1999). Birds of Kerala. 3rd Edn. Kerala Forest and Wildlife
Pakistan. 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 275. Department Thiruvananthapuram. Pp. 282.
1 7. FISH IN THE DIET OF THE BLACK DRONGO DICRURUS MACROCERCUS VIEILLOT
The Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus is well known
as an omnivore, feeding predominantly on insects,
occasionally on lizards, small birds and small bats. It has also
been recorded feeding on flower-nectar, moths, butterflies
and insects (compact handbook, Ali and Ripley 1987).
However, fish have not been reported in its diet.
On the morning of April 28, 2002, 1 was observing the
feeding behaviour of White-breasted Kingfisher ( Halcyon
smymensis ), Small Blue Kingfisher ( Alcedo atthis), Black Kite
( Milvus migrans ), Brahminy Kite ( Haliastur indus). House
Crow ( Corvus splendens ) and Jungle Crow ( Corvus
macrorhynchos) in a small pond in Nalangkattalai village in
Thiruvarur district, Tamil Nadu. The pond was almost dry
because of the summer heat, owing to which most of the fish
had been caught by the villagers. The rest had died and were
floating on the muddy water.
I saw five Black Drongos arrive at the site, and
immediately all of them started feeding on the floating dead
fish with other birds. They frequently dived at the floating
fish and with the prey in their beaks, perched on a nearby
Neem ( Azadirachta indica) tree to feed. The fish were about
10 cm long. These birds kept feeding and hovering over the
pond from 0830 to 1200 hrs, as long as the prey was available.
However, the major share of the fish prey went to the kites,
which dived and captured the floating fish repeatedly with
great agility.
Although the Black Drongo prefers open, fallow paddy
fields and grazing land for feeding on a variety of insect fauna,
the availability of easy prey, like floating fish, may have tempted
them to use the resource, or scarcity of food may have forced
them to go for the fish. This observation deserves notice since
there is no published record of the species feeding on dead fish.
December 12, 2002 B. SENTHILMURUGAN
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill house, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Email: bnhs@bom4.Vsnl.net.in
116
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
18. GREAT-TUFTED MYNA ACRIDOTHERES GRANDIS —
AN ADDITION TO THE BIRDS OF MEGHALAYA
The Great-tufted Myna Acridotheres grandis is also
known as White-vented or Great Myna. It is distributed from
northeast India to Sulawesi and Christmas Islands (Indian
Ocean), while in India it was only known from Nagaland,
Manipur and Mizoram (Ali and Ripley 1 983), which was also
the westernmost limit of its range. The first record in Assam
was in 1986 when it was observed at Dimbruchara in Barail
Reserve Forest in North Cachar Hills district (Choudhury
1 99 1 a). Thereafter, it appeared to be visible in almost all parts
of Assam (Choudhury 1991b) suggesting a case of new and
notable range extension.
On July 21, 2002 while travelling to Shillong from
Guwahati in northeast India with Asad Rahmani and Kulojyoti
Lahkar, I saw two Great-tufted Mynas at the 14lh mile area
(26° 05' N, 91° 53' E) between Jorabat and Bymihat. The time
was around 1530 hrs. The birds flew from Meghalaya to
Assam; that stretch of the National Highway 40 has been
marked as the interstate boundary. Although I recorded it in
my notebook, I overlooked its significance as the species
has become common even in Guwahati city since about one
and half a decades. Subsequently, I cross-checked with
records and realised that the species was never recorded in
Meghalaya (Baker 1907; Choudhury 1991b, 2000; Godwin-
Austen 1870a,b, 1872; Grimmett e? a/. 1998). The habitat was
foothills in Meghalaya (Ri-Bhoi district), while it was a small,
cultivated valley on Assam side (in Kamrup district) with
human habitations and shops along the busy national
highway.
February 25, 2003 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India,
C/o Assam Co., Ltd., Bamunimaidam.
Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.
Email: badru l@sancharnet.in
REFERENCES
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): The Handbook of the Birds of India &
Pakistan. Compact Edn. Oxford University Press, New Delhi
(revised edn. 1987, Bombay).
Baker. E.C.S. (1907): The birds of the Khasia Hills, 2 parts. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 17.
Choudhury, A.U. (1991a): New for Assam: the White-vented myna.
OBC Bulletin No. 13: 20-23.
Choudhury, A.U. (1991b): Distribution of Orange-billed jungle myna
in North-East India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 286-287.
Choudhury, A.U. (2000): The Birds of Assam. Gibbon Books & WWF-
India, North-East Regional Office, Guwahati.
Godwin-Austen, H.H. (1870a): 1870. A list of birds obtained in the
Khasi and North Cachar Hills. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 39(2): 91 -
92.
Godwin-Austen, H.H. (1870b): Second list of birds obtained in the
Khasi and at their base in the Mymensingh and Sylhet districts.
J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 39(3): 264-275.
Godwin-Austen, H.H. (1872): Third list of birds obtained in the Khasi
and Garo Hill ranges, with some corrections and additions to the
former list. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 41(2): 142-143
Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian
Subcontinent. Christopher Helm (Publishers) Ltd., London.
19. AN OBSERVATION OF MATE SELECTION IN THE HOUSE CROW
CORVUS SPLENDENS: AN APPARENT INSTANCE
OF MODIFIED LEKKING IN A CORVID
Introduction
Corvids are a wide ranging and diverse group of birds.
Often considered the most intelligent of birds, their social
systems are highly varied. Perhaps because of the general
ease with which they can be observed the behaviour of the
corvids has been studied extensively. Corvids have proven
especially important in the study of intelligence (Welty 1979;
Gill 1995) and breeding behaviour (Skutch 1976). Mate
selection is one of the most critical components of any social
structure and corvids are known to be fussy about the mates
that they select. Many extensive studies of breeding
behaviour in corvids have been conducted [Ratcliffe 1997
(ravens); Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1984 (Florida Scrub-
Jay); Yeates 1 934 (Rook); Marzluff and Baida 1 992 (Pinyon
Jay);Kilham 1989 (American Crow and Northern Raven)] It
has been generally observed that these birds form close pair
bonds (Angell 1978; Goodwin 1986) and many species mate
for life. Goodwin (1986) notes that “for all species whose
behaviour is reasonably well known breeding adults live in
pairs” and that ritual feeding of the female by the male is a
common part of the mating ritual in many species. Here we
report an observation of breeding behaviour in the House
Crow ( Corvus splendens) that represents some certain
deviations from the known norm of corvid behaviour and is
unusual for birds in general.
Although no monograph on them has been written,
House Crows have been studied extensively, primarily
because of the ease with which they can be observed. House
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
117
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Crows have adapted to human habitation and have been
closely associated with areas of human habitation for
centuries (Gill 1995); and are rarely found away from human
habitations (Ali and Ripley 1986). Their distribution around
the Indian subcontinent, Africa, and the Middle East is closely
tied to human settlements and shipping routes, by which
they are believed to have dispersed (Feare and Mungroo
1989; Pilcher 1986; Bijlsma and Meininger 1984). Such close
association with humans has provided many opportunities
for the study of House Crow breeding behaviour. They are
generally described as being monogamous and pairing for
life (Madge and Burn 1994; Ali and Ripley 1986), although
Bijlsma and Meininger (1984) describe observations of trios
of birds which they believed to be pairs with an extra individual
and Goodwin ( 1 986) reports anecdotal evidence of occasional
promiscuity. The most extensive study of House Crow
breeding behaviour was conducted by Lamba (1963) who
records House Crows forming large flocks at the beginning
of the mating season in which pair bonding occurs, but does
not describe how mates are selected. He goes on to note that
the House Crow “does not like to make a public exhibition of
its connubial affections” and, indeed, the only description of
copulation behaviours we could find was Acharya (195 1) who
describes two instances of copulation between apparently
pair bonded birds that he observed from his bicycle on a
street corner in India. We have been unable to find any
detailed description of how mate selection in House Crows
occurs. We report here an observation of mate selection by a
female House Crow in a situation resembling a modified lek.
In lekking behaviour, several males gather in a small
area and defend arenas in which they display to attract mates.
Females typically choose from amongst the displaying males
and depart after copulation (Alcock 1998). Lekking is well
known in artiodactyl mammals (Nefdt 1995; Gosling and Petrie
1 990; Clutton-Brock et al. 1 989), and in birds. Lekking in birds
has been principally recorded in shorebirds (Pruett-Jones
1988; Hoglund etal. 1993) and gallinaceous birds (Rintamaki
et al. 1995; Wiley 1980), but has also been documented in
certain passerines (Snow 1956). To our knowledge, no
instances of lekking or lek-like behaviour has ever been
recorded in corvids.
Males may benefit from such behaviour by increasing
their chances of copulating with females by locating
themselves in an area where females congregate, associating
with other males of “higher quality” (those that score more
copulations), by increasing the levels of female stimulation
with multiple displays, or by easing the ability of females to
compare males, thus creating a mating system preferred by
the females. Such advantages are functional when females
want to choose a male based on physical indications of genetic
fitness, when any further contribution to the rearing of the
young beyond fertilization is irrelevant. It is difficult to explain
group displays of males in a species in which the parents
remain paired and raise offspring together, ostensibly for
multiple breeding seasons, except as a display system
preferred by females.
Observation: The incident of lek-like behaviour was
observed in late May on a suburban street in the G-6 district
of Islamabad, Pakistan. This area is characterized by single
family houses and some small businesses. Several parks exist
in the area comprised of open woodland and meadows. Whilst
driving near one such park, a group of House Crows (identified
as Corvus splendens splendens as per Grimmett et al. 1999)
were observed behaving in an interesting fashion. The car
was parked across the street from the crows and used as a
blind in order to observe their behaviour. There was no
apparent reaction by the crows to this action.
Six crows were standing on the street corner in a broad
semicircle around another individual. These first six birds were
ardently engaged in what appeared to be courtship behaviour.
They were bending forward from the pelvis, arching their necks,
and drooping their wings while emitting a loud kaaa call. These
actions appeared to be aimed at the seventh bird, rather than
each other, as they frequently turned sideways in order to attract
her attention. (It is not possible to distinguish the sexes visually,
this sex determination is based on subsequent behaviour.) While
this activity was going on, the seventh bird walked up and
down the line, silently watching them. Periodically she would
stop and pay special attention to one of the individuals, at
which point he would face her and bob his head in addition to
the previously described actions. The other birds would make a
greater effort and swing from side to side at these times,
apparently to attract the female’s attention.
After engaging in the above behaviour for approximately
10 minutes the female stopped in front of the second bird
from the right of the line and emitted a series of kaaa calls
while bobbing her head. At this signal, the male mounted her
and copulation occurred (the basis for the sex determinations).
After copulation, these two birds flew off in the same direction
and were lost to view. The remaining males (these birds are
presumed to be males because they were engaged in the same
display behaviour as the one known male) continued to display
on the comer for several minutes until a human walking down
the sidewalk interrupted their display. After he passed, the
crows resumed their display on the street corner in an apparent
attempt to attract additional females.
Discussion
The occurrence reported above is but a single
observation, and so may be an aberration or the norm of
118
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
House Crow mating behaviour. Different descriptions of
mating and breeding systems in the House Crow emphasize
different characteristics and apparently reflect a flexible mating
system. Although the House Crow is consistently described
as forming strong pair bonds that persist over many breeding
seasons and remain strong within flock structure, no
description of their mate selection process has previously
been available.
The behaviour described above does not appear to be
a true lek, as none of the males involved appeared to defend
any territory. In fact, while the female was present they were
virtually shoulder to shoulder. The resemblance to a lek is
uncanny in all other respects though. The female bird clearly
inspected the performances of all the males, ultimately
choosing only one to copulate with. This situation is also
unusual in that the pair apparently bonded in this process
and left the arena together. If indeed this is a mating system in
which lekking results in the formation of a pair bond it is, to
our knowledge, unique among lekking species. Such a
situation would provide evidence that the female preference
hypothesis (Alcock 1998) of lek evolution should be valid for
at least some species.
As an alternative to lekking behaviour, it is possible
that this episode reflects an instance of cooperation among
males to attract females. A group of several males displaying
together will certainly be more noticeable than a single male.
It is possible that in spite of the increased competition from
other adjacent males, there is an overall advantage in being
Acharya, Harinarayan G ( 1 95 1 ): Mating of the House Crow ( Corvus
splendens splendens Vie! lot). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 50:
170.
Alcock, John (1998): Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach.
Sinauer Associates, Inc.; Sunderland, MA. pp. 510-517.
Ali, Salim & S. Dillon Ripley (1986): Handbook of the Birds oflndia
and Pakistan 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Angell, Tony (1978): Ravens Crows Magpies and Jays. University of
Washington Press, Seattle.
Bulsma, Rob G & Peter L. Meininger (1984): Behavior of the House
Crow, Corvus splendens , and additional notes on its distribution.
Le Gerfault 74: 3-13.
Cllit ton-Brock, T.H., M. Hiraiwa-Hasegawa & A. Robertson (1989):
Mate choice on fallow deer leks. Nature 340: 463-465.
Feare, C.J. & Y. Mungroo (1989): Notes on the House Crow Corvus
splendens in Mauritius. Bull. Brit. Orn. Soc. 109: 199-201.
Gill, Frank B. (1995): Ornithology. 2nd edn., W.H. Freeman and Co.,
New York.
Goodwin, Derek ( 1 986): Crows of the World. 2nd edn. British Museum
(Natural History), London.
Gosling, L.M. & M. Petrie (1990): Lekking in Topi: A Consequence
of satellite behavior of small males at lek sites. Animal Beh. 40:
272-287.
Grimmett, Richard, Carol Inskipp & Tim Inskipp (1999): A Guide to
the Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri
part of such a group as more females will be attracted to it.
This hypothesis seems unlikely, however, in consideration of
the high density of House Crows in the area and the likelihood
of encountering a member of the opposite sex without difficulty.
Regardless of the exact reasoning behind it, it is our opinion
that this observation is a novel instance of corvid behaviour
and warrants further studies of the breeding behaviour of the
House Crow.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are especially grateful to Lara Wells for all of her
help and support during our time in Pakistan. We also thank
Cynthia Sims Parr and Michael Westerfield for their helpful
comments and information on crow breeding strategies at the
outset of this investigation.
February 28, 2003 DAVID A. KRAUSS1
NICOLE SCIVOLETTI
Biology Department, Boston College,
140, Commonwealth Ave.,
Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA.
'Email: kraussd@bc.edu
HARRINGTON WELLS
Department of Biological Science,
University of Tulsa,
600 South College, Tulsa, OK 74 1 04, USA.
Lanka and The Maldives. Princeton Univ. Press; Princeton.
NJ; PL 91, p. 597.
Hoglund, J., R. Montgomerie & F. Widemo (1993): Costs and
consequences of variation in the size of ruff leks. Beh. Ecol.
and Sociobiology 32: 31-40.
Kilham, Lawrence (1989): The American Crow and the Common
Raven.
Lamba, R.S. (1963): The nidification of some common Indian birds.
J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 121-133.
Madge, Steve & Hilary Burn ( 1994): Crows and Jays: A Guide to the
Crows and Jays of the World. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston,
MA.
Marzluff, John M. & Russell P. Balda (1992): The Pinyon Jay
Behavioral Ecology of a Colonial and Cooperative Corvid. T &
A D Poyser, London.
Nefdt, Rory J.C. (1995): Disruptions of matings, harassment and lek-
breeding in Kafue Lechwe Antelope. Animal Beh. 49: 419-429.
Pilcher, C. W.T. ( 1 986): A breeding record of the House Crow in Kuwait
with comments on the species’ status in the Arabian Gulf.
Sandgrouse 8: 102-106.
Pruett-Jones, S.G. (1988): Lekking vs. solitary display: Temporal
variation in the Buff-breasted Sandpiper. Animal Beh. 36: 1 740-
1752.
Ratcliffe, Derek (1997): The Raven: A Natural History in Britain and
Ireland. T & A D Poyser, London.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
119
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Rintamaki, P.T., R.V. Altalo, J. Hoglund & A. Lundberg (1995):
Male territoriality and female choice on Black Grouse Leks.
Animal Beh. 49'. 759-767.
Skutch, Alexander F. (1976): Parent Birds and Their Young. University
of Texas Press. Austin.
Snow, D.W. (1956): The dance of the Manakins. Animal Kingdom 59:
86-91.
Welty, Joel Carl ( 1 979): The Life of Birds. Saunders College Publishing,
Philadelphia.
Wiley, R. Haven Jr. (1980): The Lek Mating System of the Sage
Grouse, pp. 158-167. In: Birds. W.H. Freeman and Co., San
Francisco.
Woolfenden, Glen E. & John W. Fitzpatrick (1984): The Florida
Scrub Jay Demography of a Cooperative-Breeding Bird.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Yeates, GK. (1934): The Life of the Rook. Philip Allan, London.
20. NESTING BEHAVIOUR AND UNUSUAL FEEDING PATTERN
IN COMMON WOODSHRIKE ( TEPHRODORNIS PONDICER1ANUS)
On April 9, 2002 as part of a project ‘Conservation of
Rare and Endangered Biodiversity of Gujarat (CREB)', we were
surveying forest area near Kojachora village (69° 27' N; 23°
15' E), Mandvi taluka, Kachchh, Gujarat. Around 1110 hrs,
one of us (JP) spotted a nest of a Common Woodshrike
(Tephrodornis pondiceriamis) on Acacia Senegal , about 3 m
above the ground. The whole patch of forest was dominated
by A. Senegal, interspersed with Euphorbia caducifolia. The
terrain was undulating and the ground was sparsely covered
with grasses like Aristida adscensionis and Dactyloctenium
sindicum. The average tree height was 3.5 m, shrub height
2.5 m and shrub cover was about 40 to 50 % with Premna
resinosa and Grewia tenax.
The nest was constructed in the fork of a leafless
secondary branch. It was a cup-like nest, built of soft bark
and threads, braced with cobwebs, which also helped to
camouflage it. However, it was not protected from the
scorching heat. As we approached the nest to check for the
presence of chicks, we heard sharp alarm calls from a single
individual. From its swift rush towards the nest, we presumed
it was a female. After a few minutes, we heard chip-chip calls
from the nest and saw three small chicks, which were
continuously being visited by the mother bird. They were
blind, small and naked, demanding food with open mouths.
We noticed that within 4-1 5 m area, the adult bird was fetching
deep reddish-brown flowers of E. caducifolia and feeding it
to the hatchlings. It also brought greenish-white and creamy
white fruits of Salvadora oleoides and Acacia Senegal ,
respectively. In selecting the food for the hatchlings, the adult
bird showed maximum preference for E. caducifolia , followed
by A. Senegal and S. oleoides. Feeding visits slowed down
with the increase in atmospheric temperature, which seems
crucial in reducing the frequency of this activity.
According to Ali ( 1 945, 1 996) and Sunderaraman ( 1 989),
Common Woodshrike usually feeds on insects and spiders,
but in this case it fed on flowers and fruits as an optional
food. This shows that during scarcity of food, the
insectivorous Common Woodshrike might depend on flowers
or fruits for sustenance, an additional survival strategy to
thrive in an arid environment.
We also observed that although both the individuals
shared duties for building the nest, incubation of eggs and
care of young ones (Ali 1945, 1996); feeding the
chicks was exclusively done by a single bird, probably the
female.
February 24, 2003 H I REN SON 1
29-Yogiswami Society,
Bhalej Road,Anand 388 001,
Gujarat, India.
Email: hirensoni@yahoo.com
J. PANKAJ
J. JOSHUA
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology
Opp. Changleshwar Temple,
Mundra Road, Bhuj 370 00 1 ,
Kachchh, Gujarat, India.
REFERENCES
Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University Press, Bombay. History Society, Bombay. Pp. 240.
Pp. 22. Sunderaraman, V. (1989): On parental care of Wood Shrike
Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. 12"' Edn. Bombay Natural (Tephrodornis pondiceriamis). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(1): 95.
21. ALBINO BULBUL AT KEIBUL LAMJAO NATIONAL PARK, MANIPUR, INDIA
Loktak Lake (24° 30' N and 93° 48' E) in the Moirang surrounding areas, islands and hills, constitutes the Keibul
district, Manipur, in north-eastern India is the major water Lamjao National Park, the only natural habitat of the Manipur
body in the central part of this State. The lake, along with the Brow-antlered Deer Cervus eldi. We surveyed most of the
120
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
hills adjoining Loktak Lake during November 2000 as part of
the Manipur Bush Quail Survey, conducted by the World
Pheasant Association, South Asia Office, on behalf of the
Indian Bird Conservation Network, Bombay Natural History
Society. Though our target species was the Manipur Bush
Quail Perdicula manipurensis, we also noted other birds
found in the survey area, as primary information on birds
from these areas are scarce.
While watching birds, a shiny white bird among the
foliage caught our attention. On a closer look, we identified it
as an albino Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer. It was
moving along with a mixed-species feeding group comprised
of Red-vented Bulbuls, Yellow-breasted Greenfinches and
Spotted-winged Grosbeaks. The albino bulbul had white
plumage, even the flight feathers were glistening white. This
we noticed when the bird flew from one branch to another.
The bird’s head was somev/hat pale brownish and it had a
scarlet-red vent that was quite conspicuous against its white
plumage.
The bird apparently was less agile, while the other
members of the mixed species flock were moving restlessly
from one branch to another, feeding on insects from within
the flowers and Pinus cones. It kept to a single cone for the
greater part of an hour as we watched and photographed its
each move. While the other birds fed on the insects from
eight different trees, the albino bulbul restricted itself to a
single tree. It also turned out to be somewhat shy. Despite
our presence the other birds, even other conspecific
individuals, fed on nearby trees, but the albino never came
close. It confined itself in thick foliage. This might be attributed
to an adaptive behaviour of keeping itself less conspicuous
among the dense foliage, probably giving itself a better
chance of escaping from predators. The white colouration
would otherwise get noticed quite easily in the open.
Albino Red-vented Bulbuls have been reported twice
(Baker 1915; Joshua 1996) from the Indian subcontinent.
Joshua ( 1 996) reported the same plumage pattern for the albino
Red-vented Bulbul, a pale brown head and red vent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We sincerely thank the Indian Bird Conservation
Network, a collaborative programme of Bombay Natural History
Society-BirdLife International for funding this survey. We
are grateful to Dr. Rahul Kaul of World Pheasant Association-
South Asia Office for assigning us the duty to conduct the
survey in Northeast India. We also thank Dr. G.K. Saha,
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, for
suggestions.
February 25, 2003 DIPANKAR GHOSE
c/o Durga Prosad Ghose,
P.O. Shyampur Baj Baj,
South 24 Parganas,
West Bengal 743 3 1 9, India.
SAMIR KHAN
WPA-South Asia, S 56/2,
DLF Phase III, Gurgaon,
Haryana, India.
REFERENCES
Baker, E.C.S. (1915): An albino bulbul. Rec Indian Mus. II: 351- Joshua, J. (1996): An albino Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer.
352. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 586.
22. USE OF LICHENS IN BIRD NEST CONSTRUCTION: OBSERVATIONS FROM
BOLAMPATTI RANGE, TAMIL NADU, WESTERN GHATS
Introduction
Birds use lichens for nest building (Ali 1996),
camouflage and feeding on small lichenophagous
invertebrates which are present below the lichens (Richardson
and Young 1977). Though extensive reports on the
preferences of birds towards specific lichen species were
available from Australia, Europe and North America
(Richardson and Young 1977; Tibell and Gibson 1986), such
detailed accounts were not available from India. Ali (1996)
reported the use of lichens in nest building by several bird
species such as flycatchers ( Muscicapa latirostris,
M. ruficauda, Culicicapa ceylonensis and Hypothymis
azurea)\ sunbirds, babblers, minivets ( Pericrocotus flammeus ,
P. ethologus, P. roseus and P. cinnamomeus), and to a lesser
extent Black Bulbul ( Hypsipetes madagascariensis).
Considering the intricate relationships between lichens and
other organisms, it is felt that the knowledge on use of lichen
species by other organisms in India is still superficial and
meagre (Krishnamurthy et at. 1 993; Krishnamurthy et al. 1 999).
This paper enumerates the lichen species observed on a bird’s
nest.
During our survey in the Bolampatti 1 1 range of forests,
Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu (11° 2"- 1 0° 54" N, 76° 33"-76°
46" E; Altitude 450-1,500 m), within the Nilgiri Biosphere
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
121
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Lichen covered Bird’s nest from the Bolampatti II range of
Forests, Western Ghats
Reserve we found a bird’s nest (Fig. 1) completely covered
with lichens, in the fork of the upper branches, 12 m from the
ground, of an Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth., within a
Mixed Deciduous forest at 800 m above msl.
The cup-shaped nest was made of grass and fibres as
described by Ah ( 1 996). It measured 8 cm in diameter, 4.5 cm
in height and the bulk of the inner nesting material was
composed of a thin rachis of an imparipinnate compound
leaf. The rachis was 8.5 cm long with a swollen base, properly
bowered to form the nest.
Lichen species were found plastered compactly with
cobwebs one above the other on the outer surface of the nest
by the bird. These lichens Bulbothrix tabacina (Mont. Bosch)
Hale, Parmotrema mesotropum (Mull. Arg.) Hale and
P. zollingeri (Hepp.) Hale, were identified using standard
literature (Awasthi 1989). No lichens were found within the
inner cavity of the nest. Parmotrema mesotropum and
P. zollingeri were used in large quantities to cover the lower
lateral surfaces of the nest. The rim of the nest was lined with
Bulbothrix tabacina. The growth form, lobe shape and size
REFE
Ali, SAlim (1996): The Books of Indian Birds. 1 2" Edn. Bombay
Natural History Society, 354 pp.
Awasthi, D.D. (1989): A key to the macro lichens of India and Nepal.
Journal of Hattori Botanical Laboratory' 65: 207-302.
Krishnamurthy, K.V., G.N. Hariharan & John T. Kocheril (1993):
Mutualism between Metisa species (insect) and Lepraria species
and colour of all the three lichen species were found to be
similar.
Discussion: The presence of lichens on only the outer
surface shows that the bird has used lichens to camouflage
the nest from predators, and decorate. The golden plovers of
St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea make their nests from
the lichen Thamnolia vermicularis s.l. in a site with bright
and conspicuous lichens around it, such that it perfectly
camouflages the nest; in addition, the bird’s colouring matches
that of the lichen covered nest, so it is camouflaged when
sitting on the nest (Sauer 1962). In this case also, the branch
supporting the nest was completely covered by
morphologically similar lichens such as Hypotrachyna
awasthi Hale & Patw, Parmotrema saccatilobum (Zahlbr.)
Hale and Rimelia reticulatum (Taylor) Hale & A. Fletcher.
The Bower Bird Prionodura newtoniana in Australia
uses Usnea sp. and several other bird species use lichens to
decorate their nests (Tibell and Gibson 1986; Seaward 1989).
Bower Birds court and mate inside the nest and hence decorate
it; a few Indian birds also do the same. The bird’s selectiveness
for specific lichen species has also been reported earlier. The
Long-tailed Tit (Aegithalos caudatus L.) selectively collects
Evemia prunastri (L.) Ach. for nest building (Richardson
and Young 1977). In this case, the use of lichens could be to
decorate and camouflage the nest from predators.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Prof. M.S. Swaminathan and Prof. P.C.
Kesavan for providing facilities for field and laboratory work;
the anonymous referee for information on bird species and
their behaviour; the Department of Biotechnology (DBT),
Government of India for financial assistance and Forest
Department, Tamil Nadu for providing field permits. We also
thank the field guides Mr. P. Chokalingam and Mr. P. Radan of
Seengapathy for their help during surveys.
February 27, 2003 G.N. HARIHARAN1
P. BALAJI
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,
III Cross Street, Taramani Institutional Area,
Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
'Email: gnhariharan@mssrf.res.in
(lichen). Phytophaga 5: 97-99.
Krishnamurthy, K.V.. John T. Kocheril & M. Mohanasundaram
(1999): Lichen - Mite association. Pp. 29-55. In: Biology of
lichens (Eds: Mukerji, K.G., B.P. Chamola, D.K. Upreti & Rajeev
K. Upadhyay). Aravali Books International, New Delhi.
Richardson. D.H.S. & Colin M. Young (1977): Lichens and Vertebrates.
122
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Pp. 121-144. hr. Lichen Ecology (Ed.: Seaward, M.R.D.).
Academic Press. London.
Sauer. E.GF. (1962): Ethology and ecology of golden plover on St.
Lawrence Island, Bering Sea. Psychologische Forsch. 26: 399-
470.
Seaward, M.R.D. (1989): Contribution of lichens to ecosystems
Pp. 107-129. hr. M. Galun. (ed.) CRC Handbook of Lichenology.
Vol. II. CRC Press, Florida.
Tibell L. & C.J. Gibson (1986): Bower decoration with Usnea species
in the Golden Bower Bird. Lichenologist 18: 95-96.
23. FIRST RECORD OF POLYPEDATES LEUCOMYSTAX (GRAVENHORST 1829)
(ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) FROM SOUTHERN WEST BENGAL
The Common Indian Tree Frog Polypedates maculatus
has been reported from all the districts of West Bengal
(Mansukhani and Sarkar 1977; Sarkar 1984; Sarkar et al.
1992).
However, the Four-lined Tree Frog Polypedates
leucomystax, which is so common in all the states of northeast
India (Dutta 1997), has only been reported from the hilly
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts of northern West Bengal
(Sarkar et al. 1992). It has also been reported from the plains
of Bangladesh by Khan (1982).
On June 23, 2002 at 1 930 hrs, we collected a male (SVL
58 mm) and a female (SVL 74 mm) Polypedates leucomystax
from Rajpur (22° 20' N, 88° 35' E) in South 24 Parganas district
of southern West Bengal, just 6 km south of Calcutta (=
Kolkata). The female was hiding in the leaf axil of a banana
plant ( Musa paradisiaca), about 2 m above the ground, in a
garden. The male was calling from a fence near a pool of
water, 1 .5 m above the ground. The specimens were deposited
in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (ZSI A 9603, male;
ZSI A 9604, female). These specimens are the first record of
the species from the plains of southern West Bengal, and
extend the known range of the species by 500 km to the
south.
We noted that the call of P. maculatus , which is
sympatric, is a distinct tak-tak-tak while that of P. leucomystax
is a sharp and loud kraawk. P. leucomystax was observed to
be quite common in the area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Mr. Asit Banerjee and Mrs. Manju Banerjee
for allowing us to collect the frogs from their garden.
December 24, 2002 KAUSHIK DEUTI
39A Gobinda Auddy Road,
Flat: A/3/1, Kolkata 700 027,
West Bengal, India.
ANANDA BANERJEE
‘Farmland’ Dr. B.C. Roy Road,
Rajpur, South 24 Parganas,
West Bengal 743 379, India.
REFERENCES
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka — checklist
and bibliography. Odyssey Publishers, Bhubaneshwar. Pp. 342.
Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Wildlife of Bangladesh — achecklist. University
of Dhaka, Dhaka. Pp. 174.
Mansukhani, M.R. & A.K. Sarkar (1977): Amphibians of Midnapore
district. West Bengal. News!. Zool. Surv. India 3(4): 156-157.
Sarkar, A.K. (1984): Taxonomic and ecological studies on the
amphibians of Calcutta and its environs. Rec. zool. Surv India
81(3-4): 215-236.
Sarkar, A.K., M.L. Biswas & S. Ray (1992): Amphibia — In Fauna of
West Bengal. Zool Surv India, State Fauna Series 3(2):
67-100.
24. A NOTE ON BARILIUS BAKER! (CYPRINIDAE: DANIONINAE)
FROM KARNATAKA WITH REMARKS ON THE STATUS
OF OPSARJUS MALABARICUS JERDON
Introduction
Day (1875-78) described 14 species of Barilius,
grouping them on the basis of presence or absence of barbels.
Jayaram (1999) listed 18 species of Barilius , including one
subspecies, from the Indian region. Recently, three more
species were described by Arunkumar and Singh (2000);
Vishwanath et al. (2002) and Selim and Vishwanath (2002)
from Manipur, bringing the current total to 2 1 .
From Karnataka, Chandrasekhariah et al. (2000) list 6
species, with their distribution in the different east and west
flowing drainages. Among the east flowing rivers, namely
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, they list one species from
Godavari - B. bertdelisis, three species from Krishna
B. barila , B. barna and B. bertdelisis and one species from
Cauvery - B. gatensis. From the west flowing rivers, they
report 3 species - B. bakeri, B. bertdelisis and B. cartarettsis.
Earlier Jayaram et al. ( 1 982), reporting on the fishes of Cauvery,
collected and recorded another species of Barilius from
Karnataka, B. vagra vagra. There has been no report of
B. vagra vagra subsequently from Cauvery, and furthermore.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
123
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Jayaram ( 1 999) recently restricted the distribution of B. vagra
to North India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Also, the
species B. barila and B. barna reported by Chandrasekhariah
et al. (2000) are so far known only from North Indian rivers up
to Orissa, and in Bangladesh and Nepal. Summing up the
above details, there seem to be authenticated reports of only
4 species in Karnataka, namely B. bakeri, B. bendelisis,
B. canarensis and B. gatensis.
Barilius bakeri has been recorded from the high ranges
of Kerala and from the west flowing rivers of South Canara.
Recently, a specimen of B. bakeri was collected from the east
flowing drainage of the Krishna system in Chikmagalur
district. A report on the specimen collected and a comparison
of the species with the closely related B. canarensis is
discussed. Remarks are made on the barbels in these fishes, a
character used in identification keys of the Barilius species.
Material
1 ex., 80 mm SL, Honagodu, Chikmagalur, 700 m,
1 8.vi.2002, Regn. No. F. 7005.
Description
D. 3/10; P. 1/13; V. 1/8; A. 3/13; C. 19; LI . 39; Predorsal
scales 16; L. tr. 9/31/2.
Body depth 3.1 and head length 3.6 in standard length
(SL). Predorsal distance 1 .9, prepelvic 1 .9, preanal 1.51 in SL.
Pectoral fin length 4.5, pelvic fin length 6.7, height of dorsal
6.2, and height of anal 5.8 in SL. The base of dorsal fin 5.34
and that of anal fin 4.9 in SL. Snout 3.23 and eye 3.3 in head
length. Eye diameter 1.02 in snout and 1.16 in interorbital
width. Height of caudal peduncle 2.64 times in its length. Two
pairs of minute barbels present; maxilla extends to anterior
third of eye. A row of ten small spots present on mid-lateral
side with an additional row of 2-3 spots in the anterior half of
the body.
Discussion
Day (1875-78) remarks that B. bakeri is very closely
related to B. canarensis , of which it may be a local variety.
He mentions that B. bakeri forms the type of the genus
Pterosparion Gunther, excluded from Barilius on account
of its possessing more than 9 branched rays and suborbitals
entirely covering the cheeks. But Day considered the
subdivision of the genus undesirable since Barilius gatensis,
with an equally broad suborbital ring, has 8 branched dorsal
rays. Of all the Barilius species reported so far from India,
only two species, namely B. bakeri and B. canarensis, have
more than 10 branched dorsal rays (10-1 1 vs. 7-9). Except for
B. gatensis , which has 8-9 branched rays, all other species
have only 7-8 branched rays.
Though both B. bakeri and B canarensis have several
overlapping biometric characters, they can be readily
distinguished on the basis of the size, number and position of
spots. As is evident from Day’s plate, the lateral spots are
actually large blotches numbering 8 and extending to the
upper half of the body in B. canarensis (pi. CXL1X, fig I ),
whereas in B. bakeri (pi. CL1, fig. 2) these are small and regular,
numbering 10 and are arranged along the mid-lateral side of
the body. In addition. Day mentions the presence of only one
row of spots in B. bakeri and distinguishes the same from
B. canarensis with one or two rows of spots. In the specimen
of B. bakeri collected from Karnataka, there is an additional
row of 4-5 spots in the anterior half of the body; this character
is also seen in other B. bakeri specimens from Kerala, in the
collections of this Station.
Under the description of B. canarensis , Day remarks
on Opscirius malabaricus Jerdon while synonymising the
same with B. canarensis. Based on his observation on a series
of specimens of O. malabaricus collected from Canara, he
remarks that there is no difference except in the height of
dorsal fin and a row of small blue spots (9- 1 2) along the middle
of the sides, sometimes two rows being present in the first
third of the body. From the above description of Day and our
observations on B. bakeri specimens, it can be concluded
that O. malabaricus should be a synonym of B. bakeri rather
than B. canarensis. Also the distribution of B. canarensis (as
also given by Menon 1 999) will be only Canara (Karnataka)
and not Kerala. B. bakeri has a wider distribution and is found
in most of the west flowing rivers of Kerala. Biju et al. (2000)
describe its occurrence in 1 9 out of the 39 west tlowing rivers
of Kerala surveyed by them.
Regarding the number of barbels in these species, Day
and subsequent workers describe them as lacking the same.
However, from the specimens examined by us two pair of very
minute barbels are seen in both the species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata and the Officer-in-charge, SRS for facilities
provided.
February 24, 2003 K. REMA DEVI
T.J. IN DR A
M.B. RAGHUNATHAN
P.M. RAAGAM
Southern Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
124
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Arunkumar, L. & H.T. Singh (2000): Bariline fishes of Manipur,
India, with the description of a new species: Barilius lairokensis.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 247-252.
Buu, C.R., K.R. Thomas & C.R. Ajith Kumar (2000): Ecology of hill
streams of Western Ghats with special reference to fish
community. Final Report. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai. 203 pp
Chandrasekhariah, H.N., M.F. Rahman & S. Lakshmi Raghavan
(2000): Status of fish fauna in Karnataka. Pp. 98-135. In:
Endemic Fish Diversity of Western Ghats (Eds. Ponniah, A.G
& A. Gopalakrishnan). NBFGR-NATP Publication- 1, National
Bureau of Fish Resources, Lucknow, U.P., India. 347 pp.
Day, F. (1875-1878): The Fishes of India; being a Natural History of
the fishes known to inhabit the seas and the freshwaters of
India, Burma, Ceylon. Text and Atlas in 4 parts. London: xx +
778 pp; 195 plates.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian
Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi (India): 1-551, pis I-
XVIII.
Jayaram, K.C., T. Venkateswarulu & M.B. Raghunathan (1982): A
survey of Cauvery river system with a major account of its Fish
Fauna. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper No. 36: 1-115.
Mfnon, A.GK. (1999): Checklist, Freshwater fishes of India. Rec
zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper No 115: 1-366.
Selim, K. & W. Vishwanath (2002): A new cyprinid fish species of
Barilius Hamilton from the Chatrickong river, Manipur, India.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 99(2): 267-270.
Vishwanath, W. & W. Manoj Kumar (2002): A new cyprinid fish of
the genus Barilius Hamilton, from Manipur, India J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. 99(1): 86-89.
25. OBSERVATIONS ON TWO CATFISH SPECIES FROM BANGALORE DISTRICT,
KARNATAKA
While working on fish collections from Bangalore
district, six catfish species were encountered of which two
species Sperata aor (Hamilton) and Mvstus cavasius
(Hamilton) need special mention, since they do not conform
to the keys provided, nor agree with the figures given in the
standard books, namely Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and
Jayaram ( 1 999), used by fish workers.
Sperata aor (Hamilton)
Earlier known as Pimelodus aor , the species was placed
under various genera, namely Bagrus, Macrones, Mystus
(Osteobagrus), Aorichthys, Mystus (A orichthys) and recently
under Sperata (Ferraris and Runge 1999). Hamilton (1822)
described the species with eight barbels, of which two reach
the tail fin. He also provided a lucid figure of the same.
This long maxillary barbel and larger gape of mouth
chiefly distinguish the species from its Indian congener
S. seenghala Sykes. Both, Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and
Jayaram ( 1 999) provide Sykes’ figure (after Day) of seenghala
with a spatulate snout, smaller gape of mouth and smaller
adipose dorsal fin . However, Talwar and Jh ingran (1991) have
given importance to the length of the barbel while
distinguishing the species, which is reflected in the keys as
well as in the text figures. Jayaram ( 1 999) has overlooked this
character; the seenghala (after Day) with smaller maxillary
barbels has been figured to illustrate aor, and this character
has also been deleted from the key. This can lead to
misidentification of the species.
Recently, in a revision of the South Asian catfish genus
Sperata , under which aor and seenghala (known from Indian
waters) are included, Ferraris and Runge (1999), in their key
to the four species distributed from Pakistan to Myanmar,
further distinguish the species by the length of interneural
shield, number of pectoral fin rays and gill rakers. S. aor is
characterised by an interneural shield as long as the
supraoccipital spine, pectoral fin rays 10 or 1 1, and gill rakers
typically 19-20, while in seenghala the interneural shield is
longer than the supraoccipital spine, pectoral fin rays 8-9,
and gill rakers 13-15. In this species, they remark, the maxillary
barbels typically extend no further than to middle of body, at
least in larger individuals. Their figures 7 and 8 of synonyms
depict specimens with smaller barbels, whereas figure 6 of
the presumed holotype (illustration from Sykes) shows a
specimen with a long maxillary barbel extending beyond the
pelvic fin tip.
The three specimens in the present collection ( 1 59- 1 65
mm SL) have longer maxillary barbels extending to middle of
caudal, a rounded snout and a long adipose dorsal, and are in
full agreement with Hamilton’s figure of the species. The gill
rakers number 21 and fin rays in pectoral are 10 (nine in the
left pectoral fin of one specimen).
Mystus cavasius (Hamilton) (Fig. 1 )
Mystus cavasius is characterised by a long adipose
dorsal starting immediately behind the rayed dorsal and a
long maxillary barbel extending to the tail fin. In the keys
provided for the species in standard fish books mentioned
earlier, the nature of the caudal peduncle is taken into
consideration to distinguish horai from a species complex,
i.e. caudal peduncle narrow/ constricted vs. caudal peduncle
fairly high/ not constricted. M. horai Jayaram is keyed to
species with the former character with the least height of
caudal peduncle being 3 times in its length (vs. its least depth
about twice in its length being the common feature of a group
of 3-5 species). In most books their proportion is given as 1 .4
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
125
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Mystus cavasius (Hamilton)
for M. cavasius, which is also reflected in Day’s figure of this
species. However, in the figure by Hamilton it works out to be
1 .9 times. In the two specimens collected from Bangalore (both
1 20 mm SL) this proportion is quite different, being 2.25 and
2.34; and further, there is also a constriction of the body at
the end of the adipose fin (Fig. 1). Though a slender caudal
peduncle, 3 times in its length is characteristic of horai, this
is found to be 1.8 times in the figure provided in the original
description. It is also seen in this figure that apart from a
notch-like constriction behind the adipose dorsal and
vertically below along the ventral profile, the caudal peduncle
rather appears to flare out gradually behind this point of
constriction.
Another difference observed in the present specimens
is its very slender shape. The body depth is 4.46 and 4.72 in
SL (vs. 4.3) and 6. 15 and 6.29 in TL (vs. 5.5-6). Slight difference
is observed in head length, being proportionately larger and
length of fins relatively shorter. In other characters, the
specimens agree with the description of cavasius. This
species is said to attain a length of 18" (Day 1875-1878),
whereas Hamilton remarks that it grows to 6" in the Ganges.
Until larger specimens and more collections are studied, the
present observation serves to extend the range of the
proportion of the depth of caudal peduncle in its length to be
1.4 to 2.34 (earlier 1.4).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata and Officer-in-Charge, Southern Regional
Station for providing necessary facilities. Our sincere thanks
are due to Dr. K.C. Jayaram for the literature on Sperata.
December 1 8, 2002 K. REMA DEVI
S. KRISHNAN
Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station,
100 Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
REFERENCES
Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India being a natural history of the
fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India,
Burma and Ceylon. Bernard Quaritch, London, xx + 778, 195
pis.
Ferraris, C. Jr. & K.E. Runge (1999): Revision of the South Asian
Bagrid Catfish Genus Sperata, with the description of a new
species from Myanmar. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 51(1): 397-
424, 8, Figs. 7 tables.
Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river
Ganges and its branches I- VII . Archibald, Edinburgh Hurst,
Robinson & Co, London. 1-405, pis. 1-39.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.
Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. 551 pp.. Plates xviii.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and
adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, xx + 1158 pp.
26. REDESCRIPTION OF SPALGIS EPIUS (WESTWOOD)
(LEPIDOPTERA: LYCAENIDAE) WITH EMPHASIS ON MALE GENITALIA
Introduction
Spalgis epius, a very small blue Lycaenid butterfly
commonly called Ape Fly (Aitken 1894) is found in tropical
India. During a survey in different localities of Jorhat, Assam
in northeast India, to evaluate pests infesting bamboos,
Spalgis epius was reared on a colony of Chaetococcus
bambusae (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), a globular coccid.
Several adults of both sexes were examined for morphological
details. Past studies were incomplete and do not provide a
proper identification guide (Evans 1932). Moreover, previous
works do not emphasise the structural details of adult genitalia
(Bingham 1905). Illustrations were also insufficient and
therefore a redescription of Spalgis epius is given.
Spalgis epius (Westwood)
1852. Lucia epius Westwood, Green. Dium. Lep., Vol.
11,502.
1852. Geridus epeus Doubleday & Hewitson, Gen. dium.
Lep. (2): 502.
1879. Spalgis epius Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p.
137.
1880. Spalgis epius Moore, Lep. Cey., Vol. I, p. 71.
1890. Spalgis epius Niceville, The Butterfly of India,
Vol. Ill, p. 55.
General: The Ape Fly is a small, slender, tailless
Lycaenid butterfly with a dark brown upper side having a
bluish tinge, and dull brown underside with wavy lines. There
126
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
is a prominent white spot on the forewing. Wing and colour
of the butterfly are slightly different in male and female. Swift
and erratic in flight, it settles with wings closed. It is generally
found among herbs, shrubs, and among leaves and branches
of small trees. Its wing span is 20 mm to 24 mm.
Distribution: This is an undistinguished and
uncommon but not rare butterfly. Widely distributed in the
plains, as well as known from the hills below 1219 m. Reported
from Kolkata (earlier Calcutta), Malda in West Bengal,
Gangum (Orissa), Bangalore, Karanja, Nilgiri hills, Bombay,
Travancore, Assam, Burma & Ceylon (Moore 1 880; Niceville
1928).
Seasonal occurrence: At higher elevation, found
during summer and rarely in October. In the plains it is found
throughout the year. However, it is deemed active during
winter (Wynter Blyth 1955).
Figs 1-15: 1 . Female forewing: scales removed; 2. Female forewing with scales and patterns;
3. Female hindwing: scales removed; 4. Female hind wing with scales and patterns; 5, 6, 7, 8 Various scales present on wing;
9 Antenna of female; 10. Palpi, 11 Abdominal tip of female; 12 Male genitalia lateral view;
13. Male genitalia dorsal view-aedeagus removed; 14. maleaedeagus
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
127
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Head: Eyes yellow, palpi long, slender, upturned, second
joint projecting half of its length (Fig. 1 0). Antennae clavate,
reddish-brown, apically rest of flagellum marked with silvery
white with black and brown basal articulations (Fig. 9).
Antenna with 32 annules, 20 mm in length. Proboscis coiled,
prehensile and slender.
Frenulum absent. Thorax black, covered with short
golden brown and grey hairs. Apical and hinder ends
pubescent, having long greyish black hairs. Legs short,
banded with brown, femora delicately pilose beneath, fore
tarsi of male having minute spines at sides.
Wing: Forewing triangular, apex slightly acute in male,
little rounded (Fig. 2). Upper surface of both wings violet
brown. Male forewing bears a quadrate spot near end of cell.
In female, white patch is broader and in discal area, with a
dark brown or black lunule. Cilia white. Wings having four
types of scales. (Figs 5, 6, 7, 8).
Under surface greyish white, with several irregular and
broken brown lines. In males with an indistinct brown oval
patch. Eyespot absent in both sexes. In females, white marking
more pronounced. Hind wings do not possess any tail
(Fig. 3).
Wing venation: Fore wing (Fig. I) costal vein short,
nearly reaches middle half of costal margin. Third radial bifid
giving rise to R3 and R4+5. Ml emitted from upper end of
discal cell. M2 starts from end of cell angle and not directly
connected to stalk of radial vein. Median vein M3 starts from
lower angle of cell and proximity of M3 to cubitals gives an
impression of 3 branches of cubitals. Anal vein lies along
inner margin of forewing.
Costa of hind wing (Fig. 3) not thickened. Humeral vein
absent. Second costal nervure splits to only radial (R) and 1st
Median vein. M2 originates from end of cell angle. M3 emitted
from lower angle of cell. Is' cubital Cul bifurcates from M3
near lower angle of cell, Cu2 emitted just before it. Anal vein
splits near base to form A1 and A2.
Genitalia: Male genitalia complex, formed by modified
8th, 9lh and 10th abdominal segments (Figs 12, 1 3). 8th segment
protractile. 9th segment as a sclerotic ring, formed of tegumen
dorsal ly and vinculum ventrally. Tergum form a shelf over the
10lh segment; vinculum arch-like, having a small rectangular
plate termed saccus. 10th segment or uncus broad, square,
having a pair of curved claws, termed gnathos. Uncus bears
Aitken, E.H. (1894): The larva and pupa of Spalgis epius Westwood.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 8: 485-487.
Bingham, C.T. (1905): Fauna of British India: Vol. 2 Butterflies. 1-
528, Taylor & Francis, London.
Evans, W.H. (1932): Identification of Indian Butterflies. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 454,
no socii.
Pair of claspers or Herpes with large, curved, upturned
and pointed claw. Herpes originates from a medial triangular
plate that also provides articulation for penile musculature
along theca.
Aedeagus, intromittant or phallic organ elongated,
tubular, gradually narrowed down at blunt apex (Fig. 14)
enclosed in a pouch-like endophallic tube that extends out
from posterior part of genital complex. Tube having little
sclerotization along its margin. Other end of tube enclosed
by a floppy sheath, called theca with a rim called anellus. Tip
of aedeagus lacks sclerotization. Herpes covers aedeagus
from sides, and two plates, upper and lower valvula, cover
whole structure. Upper tip of valvula projected like a short,
pointed spine. Inner margin with spiny projections. Valvulae
highly setose at tip.
Female genitalia slightly chitinized, rather simpler, having
an evaginated outgrowth at tip of abdomen (Fig. 1 1 ).
Material examined: 5 females and 7 males collected
from developing carnivorous larvae on colony of
Chaetococcus bambusae infesting Bambusa tulda and
Bambusa balcooa in Jorhat. 2 females and 2 males are kept in
collection of Forest Protection Division, Rain Forest Research
Institute, Jorhat, Assam (Collection No. B123). Adult female
compared with a single female Spalgis epius in the collection
of Forest Entomology Department, Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun, Uttaranchal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to the Director, Rain Forest Research
Institute, Jorhat, for laboratory facilities.
February 7, 2003 S. CHAKRABARTI1
D. GURUNG
Rain Forest Research Institute,
Deovan, Jorhat, Assam, India.
'Present Address:
Himalayan Forest Research Institute,
Conifer Campus, Shimla 171 009,
Himachal Pradesh,
India.
Email: tisum2001@yahoo.co.in
Niceville, L.D. (1928): The Butterflies of India, Burma and Ceylon.
Vol. Ill, 1-503.
Moore, F. (1880): The Lepidoptera of Ceylon. L. Reeve & Co.,
London.
Wynter Blyth, M.A. (1955): Butterflies of the Indian region. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay. 253 pp.
128
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
27. ADDITIONS TO THE LIGHT ATTRACTED BUTTERFLIES
Insects in general are known to be attracted to light. Of
course, moths outnumber many other groups in this habit,
and catches of moths at light sources have regularly been
reported. However, little is known about the attraction of
butterflies to light, as they are mostly diurnal, or such incidents
go unnoticed.
In the past, Usman ( 1 956) recorded a Lycaenid Talicada
nyseus attracted to light at Bangalore. Donahue (1962)
recorded butterflies attracted to light in India. Shull and
Nadkemy (1967) have reported 18 species (Nymphalids,
Pierids and Satyrids 5 each, Lycaenid 1, and Hesperiids 2)
attracted to light in Surat Dangs. Recently, Sharma and
Chaturvedi (1999) reported one more species ofNymphalid
from Tadoba National Park, and Nair (200 1 ) added three species
to the list (two Lycaenids and a Satyrid) of butterflies attracted
to light from Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. Here we report
two more species, one Lycaenid from Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Mumbai and one Papilionid from Pune, Maharashtra.
During a faunistic survey of Sanjay Gandhi National
Park (located in the Mumbai-Thane suburban district in
Maharashtra), at around 2330 hrs on September 26, 200 1 , one
of us (RMS) saw a tiny butterfly fluttering and dashing against
a tube light in Rest House No. 4 (Kanchan). It was identified
as the Lime Blue, Chilades laius (Stall) Family Lycaenidae.
On April 1 7, 2002, at around 2000 hrs, RMS noticed a
large butterfly dash against a tube light at his residence at
Paul Road in Pune. Ascertaining that it was not a regular
visitor, he identified it as Tailed Jay, PapiUo agamemnon Linn.
(Family Papilionidae). Incidentally, this is the first papilionid
being reported as attracted to light.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
RMS thanks Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological
Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata and Dr. H.S. Mehta, Joint
Director and Officer-in-Charge, ZSI, HAZFS, Solan for
facilities and encouragement.
January 6, 2003 R.M. SHARMA
Zoological Survey of India,
High Altitude Zoology Field Station,
Solan 1 73 2 1 1 , Himachal Pradesh, India.
NARESH CHATURVEDI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net. in
REFERENCES
Donahue, J.P. (1962): Observations and records of Butterflies attracted
to light in India. Jour. Lepid. Soc. 16(12): 131-135.
Nair, V.P. (2001): Butterflies attracted to light at Aralam Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala. Zoo 's Print Journal, 16(12): 670.
Sharma, R.M. & N. Chaturvedi (1999): Black Rajah Charaxes fabius
attracted to light at Tadoba National Park. J Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 96(1): 168-169.
Shull, E.M. & N.T. Nadkerny (1967): Insects attracted to mercury
vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat State. J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 64: 256-266.
Usman, S. (1956): Some insects attracted to light Part III. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. 53(3): 482-484.
28. FICUS PUMILA L.: A NEW HOST PLANT OF COMMON CROW
{EUPLOEA CORE CRAMER, LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)
Common Crow Euploea core Cramer (Family
Nymphalidae) is one of the commonest butterflies of the
Indian region, virtually found in all kinds of habitats up to
2000 m above msl (Kunte 2000). The adult butterfly is a
generalist species and feeds on nectar of a wide variety of
plants. The larval food plants belong to families Moraceae,
Asclepiadaceae and Apocynaceae; the commonly used food
plants are Ficus racemosa, Nerium odorum , N. oleander and
Cryptolepis buchanani.
Here I report a new host plant for the Common Crow. I
found a Common Crow caterpillar feeding on Climbing Ficus (or
Creeping Rubber plant Ficus pumila, Family Moraceae). The
caterpillar was feeding on young as well as mature leaves of the
ficus, showing no preference. The caterpillar successfully
pupated on a nearby fern. Unfortunately, the pupa was destroyed
after 10 days of pupation due to heavy rain. Climbing Ficus was
introduced into India, and is now a common garden plant. It is a
vine that attaches itself with its roots to walls or trees. The
species is distributed in East Asia from Japan to North Vietnam.
December 23, 2002 N.A. ARAVrND
Ashoka Trust for Research
in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE)
# 659 5lh A Main, Hebbal,
Bangalore 560 024, Karnataka, India.
Email: aravind@atree.org
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
129
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCE
Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Pp. 149-152. In: India - A Lifescape (Ed.: Gadgil, M.). Universities Press, Hyderabad.
29. ON THE TAXONOMY AND APPEARANCE OF MIXOLOPHIA OCHROLAUTA
WARREN (LEPIDOPTERA: GEOMETRIDAE) IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA
Mixolophia ochrolauta Warren is a rare Emerald moth
(Subfamily Geometrinae) known from a male specimen from
Bhutan, which is the type, and a female from Nepal. The early
stages are unknown. A single female has been recorded in
Jones Estate in the Bhimtal valley of the Kumaon Himalaya,
extending the known distribution of this taxon westwards.
The specimen is in my collection and is described below.
Mixolophia Warren
1 894. Nov. Zool : 391.
Mixolophia ochrolauta Warren
1 894. Nov. Zool. : 39 1 .
Material Examined: 1 ex.: 30. ix. 1977 (female).
Forewing Length: 14 mm.
Distribution: Nepal, Bhutan (Prout 1934); Bhutan
(Hampson 1895).
Remarks: Anew record for the Kumaon Himalaya.
According to Hampson ( 1 895), the antennae of the male
are ciliated. The antennae of the specimen examined are simple,
hence it is a female. The specimen is not in perfect condition
for, although the wings are intact, the scales have been rubbed
off in parts, especially around the tomal area of the forewings.
The ground colour is a dull yellowish-green, agreeing
with Hampson’s (1895) and Prout’s (1934) descriptions, but
not matching the illustration in Seitz (1915), where the ground
colour is a much brighter green. The specimen examined
differs in another important aspect, that is the area between
the postmedial line and the margin of the forewing recto is
not striated with white above vein Cuia, as in the illustration.
Hampson (1895) also noted that the veins of the outer area
are white. Rather, this area is plain green with a white marginal
line in the specimen examined. The specimen matches the
descriptions and illustration in all other respects.
The legs of the specimen are intact and all the spurs on
the hind tibiae are developed.
DISCUSSION
The specimen was recorded at the end of the SW
monsoon. In subfamily Geometrinae, there are very few
univoltine species in the area and it is unlikely that this is one
of them. It is more likely that there is an earlier generation in
spring or at the beginning of the monsoon.
Not much can be inferred about the habitat preferences
of this species. It is very rare in the Bhimtal valley and the
specimen recorded was probably a straggler from higher or
lower elevation. It is certainly very local as well as a Himalayan
endemic, but whether its rarity in collections is due to its
scarcity in nature or its retiring habits will only be clarified by
an understanding of its life history. It is probably commoner
in biotopes that have not been thoroughly surveyed so far.
The specimen examined differs somewhat from the other
two known specimens. This appears to be a case of
infraspecific variation, as commonly occurs in Episothalma
robustaria Guenee and Spaniocentra lyra Swinhoe of the
same subfamily.
Warren ( 1 894) and Hampson ( 1 895) described the male,
since the female was unknown at the time. Prout (1934)
described both sexes. Differences between the sexes appear
to be restricted to the structure of the legs and antennae.
According to Prout (1934), the hindlegs of the male
type specimen are lacking. Hence, it is not possible to decide
whether the species should remain in the monobasic genus
Mixolophia or be transferred to a section of Metallochlora
Warren. The main difference between the genera rests on the
development of spurs on the hind tibiae of the male. If these
are all fully developed, as in Metallochlora, then there is little
justification for the continuance of Mixolophia, since the
only remaining differences are details of form and colour.
Hampson (1895) placed ochrolauta in the genus
Hemithea Duponchel, under the section in which the antennae
of the male are ciliated and the hind tibiae lack medial spurs.
Since Hampson stated that he examined the specimens of the
species described in his work, and the only known specimen
of ochrolauta at that time was the male type, it is evident that
the type specimen had its hindlegs in 1 895. By the time Prout
examined the specimen during the 1930s, the legs were broken
off, perhaps due to careless handling.
Proceeding on Hampson’s ( 1 895) statement that the male’s
hind tibiae lack medial spurs, it follows that Mixolophia differs
from Metallochlora sufficiently to be a valid genus and that
ochrolauta is correctly separated from Metallochlora.
February 1 4, 2003 PETER SMETACEK
Jones Estate, P.O. Bhimtal,
Nainital 263 136, Uttaranchal, India.
130
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Hampson, GF. (1895): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and
Burma. Moths Vol. III. Taylor & Francis, London.
Prout, L.B. (1934): In: A. Seitz (ed.) Der Gross Schmetterlinge der
Erde. Die lndoaustralischen Spanner (text). Alfred Kernen,
Stuttgart.
Seitz, A. (1915): Der Gross Schmetterlinge der Erde, Die
lndoaustralischen Spanner (plates). Alfred Kernen, Stuttgart.
Warren, W. (1894): Novitates Zoologicae. London.
30. NEW RECORD OF ALEUROCANTHUS MARTINI DAVID,
HOMOPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE, FROM INDIA
The whitefly genus Alearocanthus Takahashi is
represented in India by 20 species (Jesudasan and David
1991). David (1993) described A leurocanthus martini David
from Sri Lanka infesting Sebastiania chamaelea Mull-Arg.
(Euphorbiaceae). In the present communication, we are
reporting this species for the first time from India, breeding
on 1 1 host plants in the Western Ghats.
Aleurocanthus martini David
Aleurocanthus martini David 1993. The Whitefly of
Sri Lanka. FIPPAT Entomological Series 3:12.
Materials examined: 5 pupal cases mounted on slides,
on Macaranga peltata, Honnawar (Karnataka), 5.H.2001 , Coll:
A.K. Dubey; 3 pupal cases mounted on slides, on Terminalia
crenulata, Shimoga, 293.2001, Coll: A.K. Dubey; 10 pupal
cases mounted on slides, on Clerodendron viscosum,
Dharamsthala, 7.U.2001, Coll: A.K. Dubey; 4 pupal cases
mounted on slides, on Homolium zeylanicum , Unachalli falls,
1 9.ii.200 1 , Coll: A.K. Dubey; 1 0 pupal cases mounted on slides,
on Pterospermum diversifolium, Unchalli falls, 1 9. ii. 2001, Coll:
A.K. Dubey; 3 pupal cases mounted on slides, on Grewia
orbiculata , Kulum, 28. ii. 2001, Coll: A.K. Dubey; 2 pupal cases
mounted on slides, on Sapindus laurifolia , Kulem, 28.ii.2001,
Coll: A.K. Dubey; 6 pupal cases mounted on slides, on Areca
catechu, Karwar, 33.2001, Coll: A.K. Dubey; 3 pupal cases
mounted on slides, on Ixora sp.. Jog falls, 293.200 1 , Coll: A.K.
Dubey; 1 pupal case mounted on slide, on Tamarindus indica ,
Bangalore, 2 1 .ii.200 1 , Coll: A.K. Dubey; 5 pupal cases mounted
on slides, on T. grandis. Bangalore, 1 7. ii.200 1 , Coll: A.K. Dubey.
Host range and distribution: The distribution of this
species on different host plants is given in Table 1 . It was
Tablet: Host plants of A. martini in Western Ghats
s
Family
Host name
Distribution
No
1
Caesalpiniaceae
Tamarindus indica Linn
Bangalore
(Karnataka)
2
Combretaceae
Terminalia crenulata Roth
Shimoga
(Karnataka)
3
Euphorbiaceae
Macaranga peltata (Roxb ) Honnnawar
Muell
(Karnataka)
4
Flacourtiaceae
Homolium
Unachalli
zeylanicum (Gardn )
falls
Benth.
(Karnataka)
5
Palmae
Areca catechu Linn
Karwar
(Karnataka)
6
Rubiaceae
Ixora sp
Jog falls
(Karnataka)
7
Sapindaceae
Sapindus laurifolia
Mahendragin
(Tamil Nadu)
8
Sterculiaceae
Pterospermum
Unachalli falls
diversifolium Bl Bijdr.
(Karnataka)
9
Tiliaceae
Grewia orbiculata Rottl.
Kulem (Goa)
10
Verbenaceae
Clerodendron viscosum
Dharamsthala
Vent
(Karnataka)
Tectona grandis Linn. f.
Bangalore
(Karnataka)
found in three southern states of India, namely Goa, Karnataka
and Kerala, on 1 1 host plants belonging to 1 0 families.
February 22, 2003 ANIL KUMAR DUBEY
R. SUNDARARAJ
Wood Biodegradation Division
Institute of Wood Science & Technology
RO. Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003,
Karnataka, India.
REFERENCES
David, B.V. (1993): The whitefly of Sri Lanka. FIPPAT Entomological Jesudasan & B.V. David (1991): Taxonomic studies on Indian
Series 3: 12. Aleyrodidae (Insecta: Homoptera), Oriental Ins. 25: 243-253.
31. NEW RECORD OF BROWN MUSSEL PERNA INDICA KURIAKOSE AND
NAIR 1976, FROM KARNATAKA COAST
Mussels (Phylum Mollusca, Class Pelecypoda, Order
Filibranchiata, Family Mytilidae) form one of the most common
food sources, generally termed as poor man’s food and make
a sizable contribution to marine fisheries. In the past few years,
in order to meet the ever-increasing demand for protein-rich
nutrition, mussel culture has been taken up as a prospective
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
131
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
alternative to the few marine and estuarine species in
mariculture. While working on the aquaculture prospects and
seed resources of Green Mussel Perna viridis Linnaeus, an
abundant species on both the west and east coasts of India,
the authors came across a new mussel Perna indica in
Amadalli, about 18 km south of Karwar in Karnataka.
(Photographic evidence given -Eds).
Perna indica Kuriakose and Nair 1976 is popularly
known as Brown Mussel. It has a restricted distribution along
the southwest coast of India from Cape Camorin to
Tiruchendur. Important centres where dense populations are
found include Cape Camorin, Colachal, Muttom, Poovar,
Vizhinjam, Kovalam, Varakala and Quilon. The present
discovery extends its distribution northwards into the
Karnataka coast. The specimens were collected from the
intertidal rocky shore to shallow water up to 5-8 m depth
towards leeward as well as seaward sides, attached to large
expanse of rocky bed. Abundant seeds could be seen in
association with Perna viridis and Modiolus sp. attached to
rocks amid weeds, algae, barnacles and polychaete worm
tubes. It is probable that the mussel accidentally reached this
place, and established itself, as evident from the small
population and isolated location. This finding is significant
in view of its food value and culture prospects.
The authors acknowledge with gratitude Shri S.C. Mitra,
Officer-in-Charge, Molluscan Section, Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata; Dr. P. Parameshwaran Pillai, OfTicer-in-Charge
and Dr. M.K. Anil, Scientist, Marine Fisheries Division
CMFRI, Vizhinjam for confirming the identification.
December 1 8, 2002 V.N. NAYAK
R. DURGA
Department of Marine Biology,
Karnataka University Post Graduate Centre,
Kodibag, Karwar 581 303, Karnataka,
India.
REFERENCES
Kuriakose, P.S. & N.B. Nair (1976): The genus Perna along the coast oflndia with description of a new species Perna indica. Aquatic Biol
1 : 25-36.
32. HYBANTHUS ENNEASPERMUS (L.) F. MUELL — AN ADDITION TO THE WEED
FLORA OF ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
The genus Hybanthus Jacq. has about 150 species
distributed from tropical to sub-tropical regions of the world
(Mabberley 1998). In India, it is represented by two species,
namely H. enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell. and H. travancoricus
(Bedd.) Melch. (Banerjee and Pramanik 1993).
H. enneaspermus, a common weed in India, has been collected
for the first time from Andamans. It forms an addition to the
flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and a new generic
record for the Islands.
For description see the references in the following
citations:
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell. Fragm. Phyt.
Austr. 10:81. 1976; Banerjee & Pramanik in Sharma etal. FI.
India 2: 343. 1993; Wadhwa& Weerasooriya in Dassanayake
et al. Rev. Hand. FI. Ceylon 10: 419. 1996. Viola enneasperma
L. Sp. PI. 2: 937. 1753.
FI. & Fr.: September to January.
Ecology: Grows as weed near irrigation canals in
wastelands and wet, open fields.
Specimen examined: India. Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, North Andaman, Fields near Kalpong Botanic Garden,
16.xi.2001. V.M. Radhakrishnan, 18725 (PBL).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director, Botanical
Survey oflndia, Kolkata for providing facilities and Dr. P.V.
Sreekumar, Scientist ‘SD’, Botanical Survey oflndia. Port Blair,
for encouragement.
January 22, 2003 V.M. RADHAKRISHNAN
R. SUMATHI
J. JAYANTHI
Botanical Survey of India,
Horticulture Road, Haddo Post,
Port Blair 744 102,
Andaman and Nicobar, India.
REFERENCES
Banerjee, S.P. & B.B. Pramanik (1993): Violaceae. Pp. 343-344 hr. Flora oflndia 2. Botanical Survey oflndia, Calcutta.
Mabberley, D.J. (1998): The Plant - Book (2nd edn). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Wadhwa, B.M. & Weera Sooriya (1996): Violaceae. Pp. 419-421. In: Revised Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon. 10. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
132
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
33. INVASION OF ALLIGATOR WEED ALTERNANTHERA PHILOXEROIDES (MART.)
GRISEB. IN ANDAMAN ISLANDS
During a botanical exploration of the North Andaman,
specimens of Alligator Weed, Alternanthera philoxeroides
were collected. This species has not been reported from the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands sofar(Rao 1986; Mathew 1998).
The colonization and expansion of Alligator Weed in the
marshy habitats of the Andaman Islands was observed to be
a threat to the indigenous flora.
Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. in Abh.
Ges. Wiss. Goett. 24: 36. 1879; Maheswari in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India 6:3\3. 1965;Mishra in J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5:225. 1984;
Saldanha & Rao in Saldanha FI. Karnataka 1:165.1 984; Raju
in Indian Bot. Reptr. 5: 207. 1986. Bucholzia philoxeroides
Mart.,Amar. 107. 1 825. (Amaranthaceae)
Perennial, aquatic or marshy, decumbent herbs. Stems
fistular, longitudinally striate. Leaves lanceolate, obovate,
acute to rounded, cuneate at base, 4-7 cm long. Inflorescence
usually solitary, axillary pedunculate, globular head; also
terminal and sessile. Tepals 5, glabrous, shining white,
subequal, 1 -nerved, three or four times as long as bracts.
Stamens 5, united at base; pseudostaminodes distinct and
extending the stamens. Ovary globose, dorsal ly compressed;
stigma globose, capitate.
Vernacular name: Ponne.
Popular name: Alligator Weed.
Habitat: In marshes, ditches and paddy fields.
FI. & Fr.: August- December.
Specimen examined: India, North Andaman, Diglipur:
8.xi.200 1 , CSReddy 22 1 6; Radhanagar 1 6.xi.200 1 , CSReddy
2367; Mohanpur: 2.xii.200 1 , CSReddy 2532 (CAL & KUH).
Uses: Leaves eaten as vegetable. Tamil settlers apply
warm leaf juice (after boiling in coconut oil) to blacken
hair.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank Dr. C.B.S. Dutt, Head, Forestry & Ecology
Group, NRSA, Hyderabad for suggestions and
encouragement.
December 23, 2002 SUDHAKAR REDDY
Forestry & Ecology Division,
National Remote Sensing Agency,
Balanagar, Hyderabad 500 037,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
VATSAVAYA S. RAJU
Department of Botany, Kakatiya University,
Warangal 506 009, Andhra Pradesh, India.
REFERENCES
Mathew, S.P. (1998): A supplementary report on the floraand vegetation Rao, M.K..V. (1986): A preliminary report on the angiosperms of
of the Bay Islands, India. J Econ. Tax. Bot. 22 : 249-272. Andaman-Nicobar Islands. J Econ. Tax. Bot. 8: 107-185.
34. SOME INTERESTING ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF ANDAMAN AND
NICOBAR ISLANDS FROM NORTH ANDAMAN
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (the Bay Islands)
are a group of about 350 islands and over 200 islets situated
off the eastern coast of India in a junction box with Bay of
Bengal and Indian Ocean on one side and South China Sea
and the Pacific on the other.
The presence of over 2000 indigenous (353 endemic
taxa) and 500 exotic species of flowering plants within a land
area of 8,290 sq. km is a significant feature of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. The degree of endemism is about 17.6%
(Reddy et al. 2002).
During a botanical exploration of the North Andaman
Islands, we recorded nine interesting species, not recorded
from Andaman and Nicobar Islands so far (Vasudeva Rao
1986; Mathew 1998). They are being reported here for the
first time with a brief description. All the specimens are
preserved in CAL.
Enumeration
Ahildgaardia ovata (Burm.f.) Krai in Sida 4:71. 1971.
Fimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) Kern, Blumea 15: 126. 1967 & in
Steenis, FI. Males 7: 565. 1974. Carex ovata Burm.f. FI. Indica
1 94. 1 768. Fimbristylis monostachyos (L.) Hasskl. PI. Jav. Rar.
61. 1848; FBI 6: 649. 1 893; Fischer in Gamble 3: 1660(1 152).
1931.(Cyperaceae).
Stem densely tufted, 5-25 cm, slender. Leaves flat, to 1 5
cm, margins inrolled, to 1 mm across, scabrid, apex obtuse;
ligule absent. Inflorescence with 1 -2 spikelets; spikelets terete,
5-8 mm. Glumes basally distichous, apical ly spiral. Nut
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
133
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
obovoid, trigonous to 2 mm, glossy, tubercled.
Rare, weed in plains.
FI. & Fr.: Throughout the year.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Mohanpur: CSR
2494, 7.xii.2001.
Arislolochia indicaL. Sp. PI. 960. 1753; FBI 5: 75. 1886;
Gamble2: 1202(841). 1925.
Twining shrubs to 4 m. Leaves very variable, oblong to
oblong obovate 2-6 x 1 -3 cm, 3 nerved from base, lateral nerves
3-4, converging towards apex, base truncate to subcordate or
panduriform, apex obtuse to acuminate. Racemes axillary or
terminal to 3 cm, 8-15 flowered, dark purple limb 1 -lipped,
rolled back. Capsule 4x2 cm; seeds oblong, 5 mm obtuse,
laterally winged.
Rare in hedges and open forests on fences.
FI. & Fr.: October-April.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Mohanpur: CSR
250 1 , 8.xii.200 1 .
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz. in Denkschr. Acad. Viss.
Munchan. 270. t. 12. 1814; Fischer in Gamble 3: 1841 (1274).
1934. Cynosurus retroflexus Vahl Symb. Bot. 2.20. 1791.
(Poaceae).
Annual. Culms tufted, up to 70 cm tall. Leaves 5-10 x
0.2-0. 4 cm, linear, base cordate, apex acuminate. Spikes
racemosely arranged along the axis, up to 20 cm long. Spikelets
5 mm, 2-flowered. Caryopsis ellipsoid-oblong.
Common weed.
FI. & Fr.: July-September.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Shyamnagar:
CSR 279 1 , 27.xii.200 1 .
Ficus mollis Vahl, Bot. 1 : 82. 1 790. F. tomentosa Roxb.
ex. Willd Sp. PI. 4: 1136. 1806; FBI 5: 501. 1888; Fischer in
Gamble 3: 1361 (952). 1928.
Trees with rusty foliage, branchlets fulvous-tomentose.
Leaves spiral or subopposite, elliptic-ovate to panchurate, 6-
15 x 3-8 cm, dark green above, yellow-fluffy below,
subcoriaceous, 3-nerved from base, lateral nerves 5-7 pairs,
impressed above, raised below. Figs monoecious, axillary,
paired or clustered, sessile, globose, 0.5-0. 8 cm across.
Achenes smooth.
Occasional in forests.
FI. & Fr.: July-December.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Kafeedera: CSR
2517, 22.xi.2001.
Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, Brittonia 2: 1 82. 1936.
Gratiola ciliata Colsm. Prodr. Desr. Gratiol. 14.1793. Hysanthes
serrata (Roxb.) Urban, Ber. Dentsch. Bot. Ges. 2: 436. 1 884.
Gamble 2: 962 (675). 1923.
Erect herbs. Leaves elliptic-obovate, 2-3.5 x 0.5-1 cm,
penninerved, base cuneate, aristate, dentate, apex acute to
obtuse. Flowers in terminal racemes. Corolla white with
pink throat. Capsule linear lanceolate, 1.5 cm, exceeding the
calyx.
Common in forests.
FI. & Fr.: October-February.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Swarajgram: CSR
2393, 13.xi.2001.
Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Elench. PI. Hort. Bot.
26.U5. 1802; FBI 4: 242. 1883.
Erect viscid, annual herbs to 75 cm tall. Stems simple or
branched from the base, glandular-hairy. Basal leaves in a
rosette, obovate, 5-15 cm, cauline ones sessile, obovate,
smaller, passing into bracts, all leaves undulate-crispy,
glandular. Flowers in cymose, leafy panicles. Calyx 10-ribbed,
glandular-hairy, lobes unequal, lanceolate-subulate, 0.5-0. 7
cm long. Corolla rosy or greenish-white, glandular hairy
outside, 2.5-3 cm long, lobes ovate, obtuse. Fruit 0.8-1 cm
long. Seeds rugose.
Rare weed of riverbanks and gardens.
FI. & Fr.: March-November.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Diglipur: CSR
2536. 28. xi.200 1 .
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Sp. PI. 982. 1753; FBI
5:292. 1887; Gamble 2: 1289(902). 1925.
Erect herb, to 70 cm. Leaves linear to obovate, 0.7-2 x
0.3-0. 7 cm, glaucous below, base cuneate, apex retuse or
obtuse. Male flowers above and female flowers below. Capsule
3-valved, globose, 4 mm across, 3-lobed; seed triquetrous,
muriculate.
Rare weed of dried up paddy fields.
FI. & Fr.: Throughout the year.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Diglipur: CSR
2539. 28. xi.2001.
Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. Result. Sco. Miss.
Stetan. Paoli sonal. Ital. 1 : 115.1916. Asclepias daemia Forssk.
FI. Aesypt-Arab 51.1775. Pergularia extensa (Jacq.) N.E. Br.
in Thistleton - Dyer. FI. cop. 4: 758. 1908; Gamble 2: 836(589)
1923.
Straggler with foetid smell. Leaves cordiform, 2-6 x 2-8
cm, thick chartaceous, base cordate, lobes intricate, apex
acute. Raceme umbelliform, axillary, corolla greenish. Follicles
sticky, curved, basally swollen, obtuse.
Rare in open semi-evergreen forests.
FI. & Fr.: November-April.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Entrance Island:
CSR 2689, 12.xii.2001.
Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Prodr. 420.1810, FBI 5:
27. 1886; Gamble 2: 1 1 88 (832) 1 925. indicum Ffeyne ex. Roth
Nov. PI. Sp. 208. 1821.
Prostrate herb. Ochreae tubular, 2 mm hyaline. Leaves
134
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
spiral, oblong 0.5-0. 8 x 0. 1 -0.3 cm, thick; mid-nerve impressed
above, prominent below, lateral nerves obscure, base
attenuate, apex obtuse or acute, subsessile. Flowers
hermaphrodite, in axillary fascicles. Perianth rose. Nutlets
strongly trigonous, with persistent style.
Common weed of marshy places.
FI. & Fr.: November-April.
Specimen examined: North Andaman, Mohanpur:
CSR 2505, 8.xii.200 1 .
December 23, 2002 SUDHAKAR REDDY
C.B.S. DUTT
Forestry & Ecology Division,
National Remote Sensing Agency,
Balanagar, Hyderabad 500 037,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
REFERENCES
Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the angiosperms
of Andaman-Nicobar Islands. J. Econ Tax Bot 8: 107-185.
Mathew, S.P. (1998): A supplementary report on the flora and
vegetation of the Bay Islands, India. J. Econ Tax Bot. 22:
249-272.
Reddy, C.S., P.R.C. Prasad, M.S.R. Murthy & C B S. Dutt (in press):
Census of endemic flowering plants of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, India. J. Econ. Tax Bot
35. DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA (L.f.) ETTING. ON COMMIPHORA WIGHTII (ARN.)
BHAND.: A NEW RECORD OF PARASITIC ASSOCIATION
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. (Family
Loranthaceae) has attracted more attention from plant
scientists than any other flowering plant parasite for
documentation of host range. Fischer (1926) systematically
recorded 153 host plants of this partial stem parasite from
southern parts of India. Since then, many enumerators have
reported new hosts from time to time and eventually Fischer’s
list has been increased to 410. Hawksworth et al. (1993)
presented a comprehensive list of recorded hosts for
D. falcata. A scrutiny of the literature reveals that parasitism
of D. falcata on Commiphora wight ii (Arnott) Bhandari
(Family Burseraceae) has not been recorded by any of the
earlier enumerators; hence we record it here for the first time.
Boswellia serrata Roxb., syn. Commiphora gileadense
(Roxb.) Almeida, C. caudata (W. & A.) Engl., C. pubescens
(W. & A.) Engl, and Garuga pinnata Roxb. are the 5 other
known hosts from Family Burseraceae.
On a visit to a herbal garden developed by Anoopam
Mission, a socio-religious institution, located at Mogri village.
near Anand, in central Gujarat, the senior author noted a few
individuals of this common parasite growing on a guggul
(Commiphora wightii ) tree, which is of medicinal importance
(Photographic evidence provided by the author - Eds).
If D. falcata establishes its parasitic relationship with
C. wightii, there will be added pressure on this economically
important host, which is presently endangered due to over
exploitation and improper methods of extracting the oleoresin.
Constant monitoring of the natural populations of C. wightii
is recommended as a preventive measure.
January 3, 2003 A.S. REDDY1
V. RAMA RAO
Department of Biosciences,
Sardar Patel University,
Vallabh Vidyanagar,
Gujarat 388 120,
India.
Email: asreddy_spu@yahoo.com
REFERENCES
Fischer, C.E.C. (1926): Loranthaceae of southern Indian and their host plants. Rec. Bot. Snrv. India 11: 159-195.
Hawksworth, F.G, Y.RS. Pundir, C.G Shaw & B.W. Geils (1993): The host range of Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. (Loranthaceae). Indian
J Forestry 16'. 263-281.
36. FIRST RECORD OF CLATHRUS DELICATUS BERKELEY & BROOME 1873 FROM
SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI
In the monsoon of July 1996, during a survey on Owl
moths ( Othreis spp.), I came across a small shuttlecock-
shaped fungus growing among the rocks, in the wooded areas
of Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) in Mumbai,
Maharashtra State, India. I could not identify it, but sent colour
photographs to the Smithsonian institution, USA for
identification. The photographs were then forwarded to
Dr. David Farr at the National Fungus Collection in Beltsville,
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
135
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : A large fruiting colony of Clathrus delicatus
Maryland, USA, who sent them to Dr. Orson Miller Jr. at
Virginia Tech University for identification. Finally, on May
14, 1998, Dr. Miller identified the fungus as Clathrus delicatus
Berkeley & Broome, a rare species described from Sri Lanka
(Berkeley and Broome 1875). Dr. Miller also advised me to
collect fresh specimens and dry them for detailed examination.
In 2000, we studied the specimens in his laboratory and
confirmed that they were Clathrus delicatus. This is the
second record in India and that too after 64 years. The only
record of this species in India is from Mysore in 1932 by
Berkeley Rev. M.J. E.L.S. & C.E. Broome, Esq, F.L.S. (1875):
Enumeration of the Fungi of Ceylon. Part II, containing the
remainder of the Hymenomycetes, with the remaining
established tribes of Fungi. Journ. Linnaean Soc., London,
Botany XIV: 29-139.
Dring, D.M. (1980): Contributions towards a rational arrangement of
the Clathraceae. Kew Bull. 35(1): 1-96.
Narasimhan. The description of the specimen matches with
that of Dring ( 1 980); Petch ( 1 908 ) and Fischer ( 1 890- 1 900).
In 1997 and 1998, all my efforts to locate the fungus
failed. However, in 1999, 1 managed to locate a large fruiting
colony on a pile of rotting bamboo logs, from which I collected
specimens, including the matured receptacle and buds
(Fig. 1). Some specimens were also preserved in 70%
formaldehyde. I also managed to collect the insects, which
seem to be responsible for fertilisation of this fungus, the
species of which could not be identified.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the guidance provided by
Dr. Orson Miller, Professor of Botany and Curator of Fungi,
Department of Biology, Virginia Tech University, USA for
identifying the fungus. I also express my gratitude to Dr. Miller
and Mrs. Hope Miller for their warm hospitality during my
stay in USA. I am grateful to Dr. Cathie Aime for providing
relevant literature.
I am grateful to the Smithsonian Institution and Dr. David
Farr, National Fungus Collections in Beltsville, Maryland for
help in identification, and Ms. Priti Sawant, BNHS for field
studies.
January 22, 2003 DEEPAK APTE
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra, India.
Email: bnhs_conservation @ vsnl.net
Fischer. Ed. (1890-1990): Untersuchungen zur Vergleichenden
Entwicklungsgeschichte und Systematik der Phalloideen, Mit 6
Tafeln und mehreren Holzschnittenetch.
Narasimhan, M.J. (1932): The Phalloideae of Mysore. Journ. Indian
Botanical Survey 11: 248-254.
Petch, T. (1908): The Phalloideae of Ceylon. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard.
Peradeniya 4(4): 139-182.
37. STUDIES ON THE SEASONAL ASPECTS OF ANGIOSPERMIC WALL
VEGETATION OF KHARGONE AND ITS SUBURBS
Our knowledge of the wall flora is limited both at national
and international levels (Willis et al. 1893; Salisbury 1920;
Fitter 1945; Rishbeth 1948; Ghosh 1 960 and Varshney 1971).
Earlier the flora of this tract has been studied by Shastri ( 1977),
but no information on the wall flora of this area is available till
date. Wall vegetation may serve as basic knowledge for
artificial habitats (Sahu 1984); hence the present
communication attempts to study the wall vegetation of
Khargone and its suburbs in different seasons of the year.
Khargone city (2 1 ° 45' N, 75° 30' E; 250.38 m above msl)
is headquarter of the West Nimar district of Madhya Pradesh.
It is one of the tribal districts of the state, and more than 30
percent of the population belongs to tribal communities
(Bhilala, Korki, Manka and Barela). Biogeographically it is a
part of central India. This area enjoys a variety of habitat
conditions and is also thickly populated. In the past three
136
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
decades, a number of colonies have been developed around
the city. There are a number of temples, mosques, old
buildings and an old fort wall in dilapidated condition along
the bank of River Kunda, a tributary of Narmada. Besides,
there are a large number of huts made up of mud and bricks
on both sides of the river near Bhatwadi area and the newly
formed Sanjay Nagar. Wall habitats - mud walls, brick mud
wall, brick mortar wall - roofing of earthen tiles, old buildings,
temples and mosques provide a unique habitat for the
development of a specialised “wall flora” (Sahu 1 984).
Method of study: In order to study the wall flora, plants
growing on old buildings, temples, terraces, boundary wall,
mud wall, brick mud wall, brick mortar wall, dug well boundary
wall, fort wall, roofs of earthen tiles, and crevices of cemented
walls were collected during June 1997 to May 1998 and
identified after consulting standard literature (Duthie 1952;
Cooke 1957; Willis 1973). Herbarium sheets were prepared
and deposited in the Botany Department, Govt. Post Graduate
College, Khargone for record. Meteorological data were
obtained from the Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Research Centre, Khargone (Table 1). The plants obtained
during the survey are enumerated alphabetically in Table 2,
the dominant families are listed in Table 3.
Climate: The climate of Khargone is typically
monsoonic and shows three different seasons in a year i.e.
Table 1: Climatological data of Khargone
from June, 1997 to May, 1998
Year and
months
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainy
days
Temperature
Mean Mean
max. mini
Relative
Humidity
(mean %)
1997
June
153.0
7
31.1
23.7
84.7
July
201.5
10
31.5
26.1
86.5
August
143.0
11
29.8
25.1
85.5
September
77.5
5
30.5
24.6
79.0
October
11.5
2
31.0
23.2
74.3
November
26.0
2
23.0
19.9
78.9
December
50.5
4
29.7
14 0
80.1
1998
January
29.6
12.0
75.0
February
—
—
34.4
11.2
63.4
March
—
—
42.1
13.2
54.2
April
—
—
43.5
19.7
45.5
May
—
—
45.2
27.1
35.4
663.0
41
Table 3: Dominant families in the wall flora of Khargone
Family
Number of genera
Number of species
Poaceae
12
12
Asteraceae
10
10
Euphorbiaceae
3
7
monsoon, winter and summer. June is the transitional month
between summer and monsoon, while October is the
transitional month between monsoon and winter. The total
average annual rainfall for the period under investigation is
663 mm. The maximum rainfall (20 1 .50 mm) was recorded in
July 1 997, while maximum number of rainy days was recorded
in August 1 997. The rainfall is irregular and uneven, and about
80 to 90 percent is recorded during June to September. A
few mid showers are recorded in winter. The mean minimum
(1 1 .2 °C) and maximum temperatures (45.2 °C) were recorded
in February 1998 and May 1998 respectively. The average
relative humidity ranges from 68.0 to 94.5 percent, which was
maximum in July, 1997. There are 7 wet months and 5 dry
months in the year.
Observations and Discussions: The wall flora of man-
made habitats of Khargone and its neighbourhood areas has
6 1 angiosperm species belonging to 56 genera and 24 families
(Table 2). A number of lower cryptogamic plants namely algae,
mosses among others were also seen on such habitats, but
have not been included in the present study. The plant species
on the wall habitats varies considerably with respect to
different seasons of the year. In early July, at the onset of
monsoon, many plant species like Achyranthes aspera,
A. spinosus, Cynodon dactylon , Cyperus rotundus ,
Euphorbia hirta, Phyllanthus fraternus etc. appeared on the
walls. During late July and August, when the number of rainy
days are maximum, plants such as Ageratum conizoides,
Boerhaavia diffusa , Commelina benghalensis, Euphorbia
sp., Tridax procumbens , Vernonia cineria, Sonchus asper
and many grasses show luxuriant growth. This may be due to
a high percentage of relative humidity during monsoon. Most
of these species disappear after the rains, but on account of
frequent rainfall during winter from November to December;
plants like Ageratum conizoides , Tridax procumbens,
Vernonia cinerea and some other herbaceous annuals show
luxuriant growth on wall habitats and continue to grow with
woody perennials like Ficus religiosa.
The wall vegetation becomes extremely thin and sparse
during summer and is represented by plants like Amaranthus
spinosus. Ficus religiosa and Tridax procumbens. When the
temperatures soar in May (max. 45.2 °C) almost all the
vegetations on man-made habitats die except for a few woody
perennials. The constituent elements of the wall flora include
species belonging to 20 families and the most dominant
families are Poaceae (12 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (10 spp.) and
Asteraceae (7 spp.) (Table 3).
The wall vegetation varies with the type of wall, e.g.
walls made using black-cotton soil exhibit species like
Brassica campestris, Echinoch/oa colonum etc. which are
characteristic features of dry pond vegetation. It is possible
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
137
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 2: Enumeration of plants observed on the walls of old buildings of Khargone and its neighbouring areas
Species
Family
Season
Life form
Achyranthes aspera Linn.
Amaranthaceae
R
Th
Ageratum conizoides Linn.
Asteraceae
R, W
Th
Alysicarpus monilifer DC.
Fabaceae
R, W
Th
Amaranthus spinosus Linn
Amaranthaceae
R,W,S
Th
A. viridis Linn.
Amaranthaceae
R,W
Th
Andrographis panicutata Nees.
Acanthaceae
R
Th
Aristida depressa Retz
Poaceae
R
Th
Aristolochia bracteata Lamk.
Aristolochiaceae
R ,W,S
Ch
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Meliaceae
R,W,S
Ph
Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.
Nyctaginaceae
R,W,S
Ch
Brachiaria distachiya (Linn.) Stapf
Poaceae
R
Th
Brassica campestris Linn.
Brassicaceae
R, W
Th
Calotropis procera (Aito.) R. Br.
Asclepiadaceae
R,W,S
Ph
Carica papaya Linn.
Caricaceae
R,W,
Ph
Carthamus oxycanthus Linn
Asteraceae
R
Th
Cassia tora Linn.
Fabaceae
R
Th
Celosia argentea Linn.
Amaranthaceae
R
Th
Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.
Poaceae
R
Th
Chloris barbata SW
Poaceae
R
Th
Cnicus arvensis Linn
Asteraceae
R
Th
Commehna benaghalensis Linn.
Commelinaceae
R
Th
Chrozophora rottieri A Juss.
Euphorbiaceae
R,W,S
Ch
Cyathocline purpurea (Don.) Kuntz.
Asteraceae
R,W,S
Th
Cynodon dactyion Pers.
Poaceae
R
Th
Cyperus rotundus Linn.
Cyperaceae
R
Th
Dactyloctenium aegypticum Unn.
Poaceae
R
Th
Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link.
Poaceae
R
Th
Euphorbia geniculata Orgeg.
Euphorbiaceae
R
Th
E. hirta Linn.
Euphorbiaceae
R, W
Th
E microphylla Heyne
Euphorbiaceae
R
Th
E. prostrata Ait.
Euphorbiaceae
R
Th
E. thymifolia Wall.
Euphorbiaceae
R
Th
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Moraceae
R,W,S
Ph
Heliotropium supinum Linn
Boraginaceae
R
Th
tmpatiens batsamina Linn.
Balsaminaceae
R
Th
Ipomoea obscura Ker.Gawl
Convolvulaceae
R
Th
Ischaemum rugosum Salisb.
Poaceae
R
Th
Launaea asplenifolia DC.
Asteraceae
R
Th
Malvastrum tricuspidatum A Gray
Malvaceae
R,W
Th
Merremia emarginata (Burm.f.) Hall. f.
Convolvulaceae
R,W
Ch
Millingtorua hortensis L.F.
Begnoniaceae
R,W,S
Ph
Momordica charantia Linn.
Cucurbitaceae
R,W
Th
Oropetium thermaceum Linn
Poaceae
R
Th
Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.
Asteraceae
R,W,S
Th
Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees.
Acanthaceae
R,W
Th
Phy satis minima Linn.
Solanaceae
R
Th
Phyllathus niruri Linn.
Euphorbiaceae
R
Th
Portulaca oleracea Linn.
Portulacaceae
R
Th
Rhoeo discolor Hance
Commelinaceae
R
Ch
Rue Ilia tuberosa Linn.
Acanthaceae
R
Th
Setaria glauca (Linp.) P. Beauv
Poaceae
R
Th
Sida cordifolia Linn.
Malvaceae
R
Th
Sonchus asper Vill.
Asteraceae
R
Th
Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P Beauv.
Poaceae
R
Th
Taraxacum officinale Linn.
Asteraceae
R
Th
Themeda triandra Forsk.
Poaceae
R,W,S
Th
Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.
Aizoaceae
R,W,S
Ch
Tribulus terrestria Linn.
Zygophyllaceae
R,W
Ch
Tridax procumbens Linn.
Asteraceae
R,W,S
Th
Veronia cinerea (Linn.) Less.
Asteraceae
R.W
Th
Zorma diphylla (Linn.) Pers.
Fabaceae
R,W
Th
R = Rainy; W = Winter; S = Summer; Th
= Therophytes; Ch = Chamaephytes; Ph
= Phanerophytes.
138
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (1), Jan-Apr 2005
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
that seeds of these species are brought along with the mud
and dung used for plastering these mud walls.
In walls made-up of alluvial red soil and bricks, the
substratum remains free from water- logging. When these wall
layers are gradually exposed due to run-off water, the free soil
particles are washed away. The most common species reported
on such walls are Tridax procwnbens and a few grasses.
When the brick walls are made from a mixture of slacked lime
and sand, it becomes recarbonated by absorbing atmospheric
C02 and turns into an artificial lime stone. Such walls are
found in old and weathered buildings. Here too, the wall
vegetation is similar to brick mud walls and shows characteristic
xerophytic annual greens, but plants like Apluda mutica and
Trianthema portulacastrum are reported only on brick mortar
walls.
The plant species found on man-made habitats show
stunted growth as compared to their terrestrial counterparts
e.g. Ficus religiosa and Vernonia cirterea are shorter, while
plants such as Ageratum conizoides, Carica papaya show
reduced leaves. The poor growth of these plants may be
correlated to their extremely reduced root system, which has
been observed by earlier workers like Rishbeth (1948). The
growth of the wall vegetation is influenced by some edaphic
and biological factors, and among this human interference is
one of the most dominating factors. This can be regarded as
a part of the environmental complex in relation to which wall
vegetation has developed because repairing of old walls,
changes in construction of houses are factors due to which
the wall flora is destroyed and changed. In 1967, Varshney
correlated the climatic fluctuations with the seasonal aspects
of wall vegetation. In most cases, the seeds are carried to the
walls with the help of wind. In wind-pollinated species, seeds
are numerous, small, smooth and light. Members of Family
Asteraceae possess parachute mechanism for their fruit
Cooke, T. (1957): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Vol. I & II.
Adlard & Sons Ltd., London. BSI Reprint, Calcutta.
Crawford, R.M.M. (1989): Studies in Plant Survival: Ecological case
histories of plant adaptation to adversity. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford, London, Edinburgh. 446 pp.
Duthie, J.F. (1952): Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the
adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan tracts, 1903-22. Vol 1-111,
Government of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta.
Fitter, R.S.R. (1945): London’s Natural History. Collins, London.
284 pp.
Ghosh, R.B. ( 1 960): Preliminary observations on the flora of dilapidated
walls and buildings of Calcutta and suburbs. J. Indian bot Soc.
29: 548-557.
Rishbeth, J. (1948): The flora of Cambridge wall. J. Ecol 36: 136-
148.
dispersal while seeds of Achyranthus aspera have
appendages for cohesion, adherence or sticking. Birds play
an important role in seed dispersal of fleshy fruits like Carica
papay>a and Ficus spp. Some weeds are also dispersed by
birds in making nests on the recesses of walls and buildings.
Human agency also plays a role in seed dispersal of plants
like Brassica campestris and others.
Thus, a variety of plant species are included in wall
vegetation such as trees, weeds, cultivated plants, common
grasses, roadside garden escapes etc. According to
Raunkiaers’ life forms, the wall vegetation of Khargone shows
a marked contrast from the ground flora in exhibiting a high
percentage (85.72%) of therophytes and this may be correlated
with the climatic conditions of the study area. Phanerophytes,
Geophytes and Chamaephytes are represented by 8.16%,
2.04% and 4.08% respectively. No Hemicryptophytes were
observed on the Khargone wall flora. Rishbeth (1948),
however, has observed a higher percentage of
Hemicryptophytes on Cambridge walls, which may be
correlated with the difference in climatic conditions. The
present study supports the observations made by Sahu ( 1 984).
One interesting case of T. portulacastrum is worth
mentioning. This species exhibits green and red forms which
possess different abilities to exploit soils rich in nitrogenous
compounds and are nitrophilous, but the green form occurring
on brick mortar wall has been found to accumulate more
nitrogen than the red form, hence they may be called as
‘eurynitrine’ and ‘stenonitrine’ respectively as recently
suggested by Crawford ( 1 989).
June 8, 2002 S.K. MAHAJAN
31, Jain Mandir Path,
Khargone 451 001,
Madhya Pradesh, India.
Sahu, T.R. (1984): Studies of the wall flora of man-made habitats of
Sagar. Indian J. Forest. 7(3): 232-238.
Salisbury, E.J. (1920): The significance calcicolous habit. J Ecol.
8: 202-215.
Shastri, M B. (1977): Flora of Khargone, Madhya Pradesh. Recent
Trends and Contacts between Cytogenetics, Embryology and
Morphology. Nagpur University, pp. 445-454.
Varshney, C.K. (1971 ): Observation on the Varanasi wall flora. Vegetatio
22: 355-372.
Willis, J.C. (1973): A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns,
8"' ed. (revised by ILK. Airy Shaw), Cambridge University Press,
London. 1245 pp.
Willis, J.C. & I IT Burkill (1893): Observation on the llora of
the Pollard Willows near Cambridge. Proc. Camb Phil Soc
8: 82.
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CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1
DIETARY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO GROUPS OF PHAYRE’S LANGUR TRACHYPITHECUS
PHAYREI IN TRIPURA, INDIA: RESPONSES TO FOOD ABUNDANCE AND HUMAN
DISTURBANCE
A. K. Gupta 3
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
— 41. FAMILY: EMBERIZIDAE: BUNTINGS
Saraswathy Unnithan 10
DORSAL SPOT PATTERN AS UNIQUE MARKERS TO ESTIMATE THE POPULATION SIZE OF RANA
CURTIPES
Savitha N. Krishna, Sharath B. Krishna and K.K. Vijayalaxmi 16
CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA
Asham Borang, Bharat B. Bhatt, S. Bordoloi Chaudhury, A. Borkotoki and PT. Bhutia 19
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF AMPHIBIANS AT THREE PROTECTED AREAS OF KERALA
M.I. Andrews, Sanil George and laimon loseph 27
BIOLOGY OF MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL PAPILIO LIOMEDON MOORE
C. Susanth 33
PITFALL TRAPS FOR ARTHROPODS: AN EVALUATION OF THEIR EFFICIENCY, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO FIELD CRICKETS (GRYLLIDAE: ORTHOPTERA)
B. U. Divya, Sapna Metrani and Rohini Balakrishnan 38
ECOLOGY OF SNAKES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ON SNAKES
COLLECTED BY SUNDARVAN NATURE DISCOVERY CENTRE, AHMEDABAD
Abdul Jamil Urfi 44
STATUS AND DIVERSITY OF FISH FAUNA IN DIBRU-SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK, ASSAM
A. Wakid and S.P. Biswas 50
HILL STREAM FISHES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF UKHRUL DISTRICT, MANIPUR
Laishram Kosygin and Waikhom Vishwanath 56
VALIDITY AND REDESCRIPTION OF GLYPTOTHORAX MANIPURENSIS MENON AND RECORD OF
G. SINENSE (REGAN) FROM INDIA
Laishram Kosygin and Waikhom Vishwanath 61
DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN KUTTANAD RICE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM, KERALA
A. V. Sudhikumar and PA. Sebastian 66
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
THREE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CLADARCTIA KODA (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)
FROM INDIA
Amritpal S. Kaleka 69
FISHES OF THE GENUS NEMACHEILUS (BLEEKER 1863) IN KERALA WITH DESCRIPTION OF
A NEW SPECIES, NEMACHEILUS PERIYARENSIS
B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan 75
A NEW NEMACHEILINE FISH OF THE GENUS SCHISTURA MCCLELLAND (CYPRINIFORMES:
BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
W. Vishwanath and K. Nebeshwar Sharma 79
A NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS (CYPRINIDAE, CYPRININAE) FROM KERALA, INDIA
K.S. Jameela Beevi and A. Ramachandran 83
A NEW FISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS GARRA HAMILTON-BUCHANAN (CYPRINIFORMES:
CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
W. Vishwanath and K. Shanta Devi 86
REVIEWS 89
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 93
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Rachel Reuben
for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.
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